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3 Fi OF THE

“ROYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA

LOI

| : 1906

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Printed at ‘‘The Examiner” ‘eit '* Weekly re ie ‘ig

° 73-15 Patterson Street, Launcestout

le (ROTASG

PAPERS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA

FOR THE YEAR

1908.

Huohart.

Printed at ‘‘The Examiner’? and ‘‘ Weekly Courier’’ Offices,
73-75 Patterson Street, Launceston.

ayes °

mat R-

Royal Society of Tasmania.
1908.

Patron :
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

firrsitent :

IIS EXCELLENCY SIR GERALD STRICKLAND, GOVERNOR
OF TASMANIA. ;

Hire-Presidernts :

AN, SMRISAPISUBIN(S), WML /es Wa(GrS)
A. G. WEBSTER.

REV OLUN STONE. LSieless©:
Wo We IBGE, Cole ast, 18 Ik (esp

Connril :

T. STEPHENS, M.A., F.GS.

RUSSELL YOUNG.

RM JOHNSTON, F.1,.S, LS.0.
BERNARD SHAW, 1S.O.

CE, MUM) WIRES. LIL C.

G. E. BRETTINGHAM MOORE, M.H.A.
SREP EIOMM PE 1S Na BIOL kK Cire.
GREGORY SPROTT, M.D.

J. & © BUKINCRON, WILD.

FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D.

E. L. PIESSE, B.Sc., LL.B.

A. D. WATCHORN.

Gouorary Creasurer :
BERNARD SHAW, Ls.0.

Secretary to the Counil :
ROBERT HALL.

Annditor :
H. W. W. ECHLIN.

_ Order of retirement from the Council:—Dr. Noetling, Russell Young,
sir E. Lewis, and R. M. Johnston, in roto,

The responsibility of the statements and opinions given
in the following Papers and Discussions rests with the
individual authors or speakers:. the Society merely

places them ‘on record.

CONTENTS.

Js\.

Aborigines of Tasmania (See Native Implements and Lan-
guage) . 3} eas eeu abit en ne
Accounts (1007), Discussion om : Faye
Actinolite, Specimen found near Port Cygnet te
Annual Report for 1908 . di SS eee
Annual General Meeting. . ie
B.
Baker, Henry D., Account of a visit to Furneaux Group ..
Beattie, J. W., Account of a visit to River Gordon ..

Eclipse of Sun icf oth May, toro ..

Gordon River, Account of a visit to, by J. W. Beattie ..

Jal.

Hall, Robert, Account of trip through Siberia

Johnston, R. M., State Borrowing and Sinking Funds ..

IK.
aimectmillits.©..Niotes onl Solar Belipsesi: \ 24/22 03 2.02514)

List of Fellows and Associates ..

May, W. L., Additions to Tasmanian Molluscan Fauna ..
Molluscan Fauna of Tasmania, Additions to .. ue
Mutton Birds of Furneaux Group.... .

PAGE

Wil, SI

il.

CONTENTS.—Continued.

N.
PAGE
Native Implements .. . Pee \ill.,x., Xiit,, 1, 3Oqaeeoe
Natives of Tasmania, Language at 5 oe, alii, Savill, GS, FO
Noetling, F., Notes on a Chipped ‘Boulder found near
Kempton .. . ae iii., 1
3 On the Native Quarry at Syndal, - near - Ross rye X., 44
a On a Native: Burial Ground at Charlton, near
IROSS go bo Kon 3G
a The Aboriginal “Designations for. Stone “‘Imple-
TIMETIES a Glo os ES Ss eae oe Ss ary exa nO
IR,
Report, Annual, for 1908 . 85
Riz, Jal, 1B, im “Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements xil1., 68
os on Aboriginal Speech OW WASTIAMIA 65 da b6 o6 co Willen 7G
S.
Subscription to the Society, Report of Committee on reduc-
{iG : OHMIC. Sede cle ee ey dene XV.
45 A. Resolutions of Special General

Meetinlcmerins: (oe 2c ac es XViil.

iN)

PAPERS.

Notes on a Chipped Boulder found near Kempton ..
By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

State Borrowing and Sinking Funds .
By R. M. Johnston, F.L.S., I.S. io

Notes on the River Gordon and on the need for reservation
of Land along its Banks .. .. .

Biyanle NER nonin

A Native Burial Ground on Charlton Estate, near Ross .
By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

die Native Ouarry,aroyndaly meat OSS! 42 25) 2.) sel oe
By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

Additions to the Tasmanian Molluscan Fauna ...... ..
By W. L. May.

The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements .. .. ..
By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

On Dr. Noetling’s conclusions respecting the Aboriginal
IDSSIsNAToMs wor Swerve Mmpollemnemes cs 56 oo 45 da of

By H. B. Ritz, M.A.

An Introduction to the cy of the Aboriginal ule of
WASTMENUIE, 55 36 < ; ; :

By H. B. Ritz, M.A.

RAL Pest Jake!
Tibet fee i , ou) Siy cee re , %
on ct toe et ‘ 5 . \
4 Pe | § ce ;
‘
, ‘
7 J y
t ted 4 ie

Royal Soriety of Casmania.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
APRIL 7, 1908.

A Meeting of the Society for the transaction of ordinary
business, and the reconsideration of the Balance-sheet sub-
mitted with the Annual Report for 1907, was held at the
Museum on Wednesday evening, April 7, 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

Mrs. C. S. Agnew, Messrs. Hugh Armstrong, F.R.C.S., W.
A. Harvey, M.B., Lyndhurst F. Giblin, B.A., A. W. Courtney
Pratt, W. Minchin Nicholls, and A. R. Reid were elected
Fellows of the Society.

In reference to the question of the reconsideration of the
Balance-sheet for 1907, the Chairman announced that Mr.
Bernard Shaw, their recently-appointed Honorary Treasurer,
had taken a great deal of trouble in going through the accounts
of the Society for the last four years, and would now furnish
any information that was required on the subject.

Mr. Shaw laid on the table printed accounts showing -the
receipts and expenditure for the years 1904 to’ 1907. ‘The
Balance-sheet for 1907 had been amended by the transposition
of figures. The error in the accounts of the Morton Allport
Memorial Fund was connected with the purchase of a valuable
work for the Memorial Library when the funds in hand were
insufheient for the purpose, and the deficiency was made good
by a loan from the General Funds of the Society. There should
have been some explanatory note to show that the amount of
this loan was a debit balance against the Memorial Fund,
which would be repaid to the Society as soon as the next in-
stalment of interest was received. The Balance-sheets for 1904-
5-6 had now been compiled, and, with the revised Balance-
sheet for 1907, had been examined by the Auditor and certified
as correct.

Mr. A. J. Taylor thought the Society might now congratu-
late itself on the fact that it had a business-like statement put
forward, and he claimed that the course he took at the previous
meeting, in moving that further consideration of the Balance-
sheet be postponed, was fully justified by the clear statement
of accounts which was now before them. Mr. Bernard Shaw
had taken a vast amount of trouble in going through the
accounts for the years which had been mentioned. He (Mr.
Taylor) did not at the previous meeting for a moment dream
of casting any reflection on the Council or the late Secretary.

Mr. Shaw, in reply to Dr. Crouch, said a grant to the
medical section for 1905 did not appear in the accounts, as it
was not paid.

Dr., Noetling raised the question.of insurance. He noticed
there was an item in the 1904 accounts for insurance, but not
subsequently. The valuable books in the library could not be
ee for £5,000.

Shaw said the books were now reinsured as the pro-
ae "of the Society for £1,000.

The motion for the adoption of the accounts was then aa
and carried.

Mr. J. W. Gould moved, Dr. Crouch seconding the motion,
“That a hearty vote of thanks be given to Mr. Bernard Shaw
for the large amount of trouble he had taken in examining the
accounts of the Society for the past four years.” The motion
was put and carried with applause.

APRIL, 13, 1908.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, April 13, 1908.

Mr. Russell Young in the chair.

The Chairman referred in feeling terms to the cause of the
absence of Sir John Dodds (Lieutenant-Governor and Acting-
President of the Society), and felt sure that the meeting was
in deep sympathy with him and his family.

The Secretary to the Council (Mr. Robert Hail) notified
the receipt of valuable literature from kindred societies in all
parts of the world, from Russia, Argentina, Canada, the Medi-
terranean countries, and Great Britain. The Smithsonian
Institute, U.S.A., had sent books of very great value.

Mr. Hall then gave an account of the travels of himself
and friend through Siberia to Moscow and St. Petersburg, and
then on to London. He described the fauna and flora met with
m a journey of 6,000 miles on the little-known Lena River, in
Siberia. The people, their modes of living, etc., were well
illustrated and described. He said we have on our beaches all
round the coast millions of little wading birds, very little larger
than sparrows, called sand-pipers, which stay with us over
Christmas till about April, and then fly 8,000 miles northwards
to Siberia, where they breed their young, arriving just after
the ice melts on the largest swamp in the world, called the
Tundra, extending over 2,000 miles east and west. In the
following October they started again, with their young birds,
back to Tasmania. Then there was a fish popularly known as
the herring in Bass Strait, which migrated past the Philippines
and Corea right up to Kamschatka, making a return trip the
Same year, and this went on year after year. Most of the

iii
food fishes deposited their eggs out in the open ocean, but the
herring was quite an exception. It was not known in which
rivers this herring deposits its eggs; possibly in the southern
streams. It was wonderful how those birds made such long
flights annualiy, and especially how the young birds, which
travelled for the first time, got back to the land of their birth.
They seemed to have some special sense of direction. These
‘birds had been migrating in this way, possibly, for millions of
years, and from a time when Siberia had a very different
climate from what it has to-day, as was evidenced by geological
impressions cf tropical plants that once grew there. Now it
had a terribly severe winter, during which quicksilver remained
frozen in barometers and such instruments for months. He
presented views, and described Irkutsk, the capital of Eastern
Siberia, Yakutsk, centre of the Siberian fur trade, and Verko-
yansk, one of the coldest places in the northern hemisphere;
yet, in the spring, birds migrating between Tasmania and
Siberia nested there, finding an abundance of food in the shape
of berries and grubs. Parts of Siberia, like Canada, had very
genial spring and summer seasons, when everything grew
quickly. He and his friend experienced weeks of perpetual
light, and clouds of mosquitoes. Siberia, in addition to having
the largest swamp in the world, had the largest plain and the
largest pine 1orest, the latter extending for thousands of miles,
and running through it were grand rivers teeming with salmon.
The coasts and rivers were rich in fishing grounds. The country
-contained many plants and flowers never seen in the Southern
Hemisphere, pictures of several of which were thrown on the
screen. ‘There was a good prospect for the country for settle-
ment by political exiles from’ Russia; these were mostly supe-
rior people. Siberia teemed with birds, flowers, and mosquitoes.

MAY ft, 1908.

The monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at the
Museum on Monday evening, May 11, 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

Messrs. W. N. Atkins, L. A. Evans, O. P. Law, and L.
Rodway were elected Fellows, and Mr. A. Conlon Associate of
the Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ :—

Notes on a Chipped Boulder from near Kempton. By
Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

The author described the boulder as one that had been
chipped by the aborigines in getting their cutting implements
from it. He found around it the principal flakes belonging to
the stone. The place where the stone was found was the site
of an old aboriginal camping ground on the slope of a hill on
the northern side cf Kempton. He described how the flakes
were used as implements, and how they were struck off the
core. The specimen was unique for Tasmania. It was a piece

iv
of water-worn pebble stone, and must have been carried for a

considerable distance to the camping ground for the manufac-
ture of the cutting instruments of stone.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said the specimen Dr. Noetling had
exhibited to them that evening was one of the most interesting
that had been found in Tasmania. Eleven of the chips fitted
beautifully on the core. Often pieces of rock chipped off irom
great changes of temperature, such as during bush fires, but
he believed that these pieces were chipped off the core before
them by aboriginals.

Mr. A. J. Taylor said the did not think the fragments were
flaked off by fire, for fire would only cause fractures from the
ouside, and this core had some fractures from the inside.

The Chairman said that fire would have broken off the flakes
more from the outside. A rich field for-Dr. Noetling’s investi-
gations would be found near the head of the Macquarie River,
where the aborigines had a favourite camping ground near the
outcrop of a cherty rock, which formed the material of most
of their implements. He called attention to some flint and
obsidian arrow heads which he had collected in Texas, U.S.A.,
some years ago, as illustrating a different phase of civilisation.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. R. M. Johnston exhibited a small specimen of a moun-
tain trout (Galaxias truttaceus), captured by Mr. Tute at
the Great Lake, which had an abnormal development in the
shape of two mouths, being a sport or freak of nature; from
the mouth, below the chin of the creature, the tongue pro-
truded. A similar curiosity had been noticed by him some
years ago in a sea perch.

Mr. A. J. Taylor made some remarks on the so-called bul-
rush caterpillar (Sphaeria robertsia). He said the cater-
pillar is mteresting because of the peculiar way in which it
becomes the host of a vegetable form of life, which uses up
the animal structure of the caterpillar for its own nourishment,
while at the same time it replaces every portion so robbed
with vegetable tissue to an equal extent. In this way the
caterpillar is by degrees converted entirely into a vegetable
root, exactly resembling, in every respect, the original form of
the insect from which it had derived sustenance during its
period of growth. The process of vegetation is this: Whilst
burrowing in the light vegetable soil, previous to undergoing
the process of its natural metamorphosis, the caterpillar gets
some of the seeds of the fungus under the scales about its neck;
and from this part of its body a seed vegetates, and grows into
a single stalk, from six to ten inches high, the top portion of
the stalk in the female plant, when fruiting, representing, only
in a much smaller degree, the club-headed bulrush with which
we are all so iamiliar. The body of the caterpillar is, as already
described, gradually metamorphosed into the vegetable root of
the plant. The seed vessel is the only portion of this curious
plant found above ground, therefore it may be easily overlooked.
When freshly dug up the root is soft, and, in spite of its woody

structure, may be found to contain satisfactory evidence—such
as the intestinal canal—of its animal origin. The bulrush
caterpillar is to be found in New Zealand and Tasmania. Other
insects that suffer the same fate are known of; but none of
these afford a more interesting illustration of the process by
which Nature sometimes makes an apparently retrograde step
—by descending from a higher, or insect, form of life to that
of a lower or vegetable condition—than we find in the case
of the bulrush caterpillar. He referred to samples of the bul-
rush caterpillar in fruit and sections indicating the woody
structure of the insect after passing through the changes de-
scribed.

The Chairman and Mr. Johnston corroborated the descrip-
tion of the development of this interesting parasitic fungus, the
former remarking that its modern generic name was Cordy-
ceps, and exhibiting a very perfect specimen of C. Gunnii,
found at Franklin Village, near Launceston.

Dr. Noetling exhibited two minerals found by him at Gad’s
Hill and at Barn Bluff—viz., analcime and actinolite—the for-
mer being a species of zeolite heretofore found only near Port

- Cygnet.

JUNE 16, 1908.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Tuesday evening, June 16, 1908.

Sir John Dodds, K.C.M.G., Lieutenant-Governor, in the
chair.

Messrs. L. F. S. Hore, B.A., Leonard Seal, and Joseph
Love, M.B., were elected Fellows of the Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ :—

On State Borrowing and Sinking Funds for the Redemption
_of State Debts regarded from an Economical Point of View.
Byaiee Veolnmstonw ino ;©)., Halles:

In the first part of his paper, relating to state borrowing,
the author points out-—-(1) the unprecedented progress of all
civilised couutries, especially within the last forty years; (2)
that this progress entirely altered the methods and instruments
formerly employed in the industrial world; (3) that the intro-
duction of the improved machinery and instruments of trans-
port and production involved immediate, enormous, and
original outlay of capital; (4) that the consequent reduction
in cost of production and transport, and of prices, so affected
all parts of ihe world that new and old countries alike were,
perforce, obliged to largely invest fresh capital for such pur-
poses; (5) that great undertakings (such as the building of the
great Canadian and Pacific Railway system), could not, practi-
cally, be constructed in a piecemeal fashion, over a period of
from forty to sixty years, to accommodate the burden of the

payment of the prircipal required immediately, and, conse-
quently, this impracticability, and also the necessity of securing
a just and equitable share of burden to all who in the future
derive benefit from the original outlay, the method of only
charging interest on capital to each year’s current revenue has
invariably been adopted in all civilised countries. He illus-
trated, by relérence to the United Kingdom, how capital in-
vestments were developed. That Australia, latterly, has not
been investing capital in this direction, either absolutely or
relatively to population, at as great a rate as the United King-
dom was indicated by the fact that during the last five years
invested capital of the kind referred to in the United Kingdom
represented a sum of 62s. 6d. per head per year; while in
Australian States, in a country nearly as large as Europe, and
as yet scarcely begun to be developed, the corresponding
capital investments only represented a sum of 28s. Iod. per
head per year. Would the present population, with its rela-
tively high “standard of living” and its vastly increased
wealth, have existed had the “retrenchment-and-ruin” cry of
the year 1870 succeeded in forcing upon the states, at the time,
the retrograde advice, “no borrowing” and “retrenchment.”
This, though eminently prudent, from the standpoint of a pri-
vate individual, m‘ght still be open to question or qualification,
when applied to the economics of a corporate body. He was
of opinion that the state taxpayers of the day stand, in relation
to the ever-changing individuality of the state taxpayers of the
past and future, in exactly the same ethical and economical re-
lation to each other, as do the existing shareholders of a
private railway corporation to past and future shareholders of
the same concern; and, consequently, there is neither moral
nor economical grounds why either taxpayers of the state or
railway shareholders of the day should, in addition to their
own eauitable share of burden, mulct themselves in additional
heavy taxation or expense (as by sinking fund contributions)
for the purpose of lessening the fair and equitable share of
burden of their future personally disconnected representatives.

The author of the paper, in conclusion, affirms as his strong
opinion that sinking funds for the absolute redemption of
loans invested in railways, harbours, and other great public
works, should be restricted to the portion of such loans whose
assets are short-lived, and, like the short terminable life of
marine vessels, cannot be permanently preserved in their pris-
tine value and utility by the ordinary yearly contributions from
current revenue funds to maintenance, renewals, and repairs,
by which means the whole permanent way, machinery, and
other equipments of railways are ever kept up to their pristine
value and utility as bona-fide state assets.

Mr. T. Stephens said that the Fellows of the Society must
congratulate themselves that, although Mr. Johnston had been
away on a visit to the old country, he had returned to them
with no loss of that force with which he had many times pre-
viously interested them. The subject upon which he had ad-
dressed them that night was such a big one that it would be
well to postpone the discsusion upon it in order that the
Fel!ows might have an opportunity of seeing it in print.

Vil
Mr. James Macfarlane also wished to have an opportunity
of studying the paper in print before discussing it.

After further discussion, it was decided that the paper should
be taken into consideration on a date to be fixed by the Council
cf the Society.

NOTKS AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. Henry Baker gave an account of his recent visit to
the Furneaux Group to study the habits of the mutton-bird.
He found when the reached the islands that the birds had left
about ten days previously. There appeared to be a tendency
on the part of the birds to leave a little sooner every year.
This was probably due to the encroachment of sheep and cattle
on the rookeries, and the vast amount of egging which went
on. The Government had imposed regulations, but they did
not appear to be stringent enough. He had been told that
the number of young birds that escaped was much less than it
used to be. Next to mutton-birding, kangarooing was the most
habitual occupation of the islanders. These animals had prac-
tically disappeared from all the smaller islands, and were be-
- coming scarce on the larger ones. Three thousand a year
would be a iow estimate of the number that were killed. The
kangaroo wcre hunted by dogs, which were kept half-starved
to render them savage. It seemed a pity that so many kan-
garoo should be killed, considering the small price the skins
brought. They were an important source of meat supply to
the islanders, and if the close season were strictly enforced
they would be subjected to considerable suffering. It was
recessary, however, that the indiscriminate destruction that
went on at »resent should be checked. He thought it was a
great pity that the isianders could not be induced to take up
some other forms of earning a livelihood than those they fol-
lowed at present. If the people of Tasmania would interest
themselves a little bit more in the islands their future would
be brighter.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said he had visited the islands in 1874,
and related some of his experiences. He agreed in the neces-
sity for the preservation of native birds and animals, and hoped
that Mr. Baker’s reference to the matter would result in good.

Mr. T. Stephens thought the matter ought not to be allowed
to rest. He suggested that the Council of the Society should
address a letter to the Government, asking them to cause in-
quiry to be made as to the extent to which the existing regula-
tions were carried out, and as to the wholesale destruction of
kangaroo and wallaby. He moved a resolution to that effect,
which was carried.

WOMEN 113, wyofey

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, July 13, 1908.

viii

i Sir John Dodds, K.C.M.G., Lieutenant-Governor, in the
chair.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ :—

_On a recent visit to the River Gordon, illustrated by lantern
slides, with remarks on the need of reservation of land along
the banks of the River. By J. W. Beattie.

The visit was made in the middle of April last, eight days
being spent in exploring the River Gordon. Unfortunately,
tor six days the weather was very wet, less than two days
being available for the photographic work of the trip. Photo-
graphs of Macquarie Harbour Heads were displayed, showing
the dispositions of the various harbour works. The outer and
inner islands, and their lights, the breakwater, and the wreck
of the s.s. Kawatiri, were shown, and gave a clear idea of the
character of this wild western port of Tasmania, the “ open
door” of the West Coast mineral fields. The late Mr. Napier
Bell’s scheme for the removal of the bar was referred to, and
another scheme, with a similar objective, but antedating Mr.
Bell’s by some seventy years, was mentioned. This early
scheme, however, appears to have never gone beyond the
presentation oi a report by the originator—Captain James
Hobbs—to the then Governor, Colonel George Arthur, in 1824.
The d‘scovery of Macquarie Harbour by Captain James Kelly
was dealt with. Illustrations of the Port of Strahan were
given, and also a fine series portraying the beautiful natural
reserve of 70 acres calied “The People’s Park.’ These serve
to emphasise the value of the forethought of the Strahan resi-
dents in obtaining one of a series of what have been aptly
termed Natural Monuments, which will remain an abiding
type of the indigenous flora. The historic places en route
to the River Gordon were next dealt with—Phillip Island,
Sarah Island, etc., being historically treated, and the beautiful
and impressive mountain backgrounds overlooking the en-
trance to the river fully described, with some of the historical
associations attached to them. The grandeur of the different
reaches and bends of the Gordon was well illustrated, and
served to emphasise the unique beauty of the river, and the
urgent claims for its protection from the ruthless hand of
present-day utilitarianism. The scenery at Gould’s Landing,
the various rapids in the upper reaches of the river, the River
Franklin, and the scenery at the Great Bend, 65 miles from
Macquarie Harbour, were well represented, the characteristics
of the river being minutely described where illustration was
not available. A brief sketch of the pine industry in the
vicinity of the Gordon was accompanied by several illustrations
of pine forests and logging.

In conclusion, the author urged most ‘strongly that imme-
diate and vigorous action be taken to thoroughly protect the
banks of the River Gordon from Macquarie Harbour to a mile
beyond the Franklin, a total distance of 26 miles, the area of
reservation to extend to the line of hills running on either
side of the river from the water’s edge to at least one chain
beyond their summits. On level river flats, where no hills

obtain, five chains from the river to be reserved. These reser-
vations, in the opinion of the writer, should effectually prevent
the destruction of the beautiful foliage, and retain not only
an aesthetic asset of unique character, but an asset of great
value from the tourist standpoint, which, if protected from
the axe and fire, wil! undoubtedly become of great monetary
value to the state.

Dr. Noetling said that there was the finest scenery on the
Gordon that he had ever seen in his life, and it would be a
great pity if the insatrable timber merchant was allowed to
destroy it. It was the duty of the Government to try and
preserve that scenery and he favoured the land on each side
being reserved up to the tops of the hills.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said that no one had done so much
to make the scenery of Tasmania known as Mr. Beattie. It
was due to his hard work and careful selection of subjects
that the world knew so much of the beauties of Tasmania.
They were ail very much indebted to Mr. Beattie for the work
he had done, not only in making the beauties of our state
known, but in the patient and careful researches he had made
into its old history.

Dr. Noetling said that if it was a fact that the Gordon ran
for two miles under the Wilmot Range, as had been reported
to Mr. Beattie, it would be the most extraordinary geological
wonder in the world.

The Chairman said that he fully endorsed all that Mr.
Beattie had said in regard to the necessity for the preservation
of the scenery on the beautiful Gordon River, and he sincerely
recommended everyone who had not had the privilege of
visiting that part of the country to do so as soon as possible.
The time would come when the West Coast would prove most
attractive from a tourist point of view; and it therefore be-
hoved the Government to preserve, as far as they could, these
beautiful scenes from destruction.

Mr. Beattie said that he had had that day received a tele-
gram from Mr. Robert Sticht, manager of the Mount Lyell
mine, supporting all that he had said in regard to the necessity
of preserving the scenery along the Gordon, and stating that
the present reservation made by the Government was inade-
quate. Nothing less than the whole range visible to the eye
should be reserved. The interests of the pine-getters were
paltry compared with the preservation of natural scenery.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr R. M. Johnston exhibited some specimens of timber
which had been treated with Captain M‘Fie’s white-ant specific,
and pointed out that it not only preserved the wood from the
attacks of insects and fungi, but enabled it to take a beautiful
polish.

>:¢

AUGUST Io, 1908.

The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, August 10, 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :—

(1) On the Native Quarry at Syndal, near Ross. By Fritz
Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

The author first mentioned a reported aboriginal quarry at
Stocker’s Bottom, near Ross. Some thought it was a myth,
and so he found it; but on further exploration he found such
a quarry at Syndal. Hundreds of thousands of fragments that
had passed through the hands of aboriginals were found lying
about. He exhibited specimens. From this quarry stone for
the implements used by the aboriginals was obtained. A vast
amount of time and labour must have been spent in vain by
the aboriginals whilst shaping their implements, and in con-
nection with these operations they used fire. The other quar-
ries of this character in Tasmania, the lecturer said, were at
Cole Hill, near Melton-Mowbray; a small one near the railway
station, Pontville; one at Shene Estate; at Charlie’s Hope,
Plenty; the Great Lake; on the road from Campbell Town to
Swansea; on the South Esk, near Perth; at Pipeclay Lagoon;
on the Tamar River; and on Mount Communication, near Salt-
water River. Most of these might, at any rate, be considered
as native quarries. He referred to the flints discovered in the
tertiary formation at Thenay, in France, as to the origin of
which there had been much controversy.

Mr. R. M. Johnston spoke of the kinds of rock from which
the aboriginals formed their stone implements and weapons.
Among the natives of West Australia to-day there were to be
found the same primitive stone implements as were found after
the Tasmanian aborigines had disappeared; the West Austra-
lian natives preserved their ancient chip flints for sacred rites
purposes.

(2) On a Native Burial Ground at Charlton, near Ross. By
Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

The author remarked that Ling Roth’s book on the abo-
rigines of Tasmania had fully dealt with the character of these
burial places. ‘The one under notice had been very carefully
examined. It seemed certain that the natives on this island
burnt their dead, but differences of opinion arose as to their
disposal of the ashes. It was pretty certain that they used to
smear their faces with the ashes. Some were said to have put
dead bodies in hollow trees, fencing them round with bushes.
They knew that the names of deceased persons were never
mentioned again, as the race were very superstitious about the
departed. He believed there were regular aboriginal burial
grounds, and his discovery on the Charlton Estate seemed to
settle the question. ‘There were heaped up a number of little
mounds, in which large stones were embedded. There were no.

bones to be found. The Charlton burial ground must be of
great age. It was a question whether the corpses were carried
to the burial ground and burned there, or whether the ashes
of the departed were subsequently carried to the burial ground.
He favoured the latter idea, a pyre having been erected and a
body cremated at the spot where death took place. It would
be interesting to know whether other similar burial grounds.
existed in Tasmania. He was told that there was one at Pont-
ville, and another at Darlington Park.

Mr. A. J. Taylor described a burial place of probably. a
Tasmanian aboriginal warrior. He quoted Backhouse’s and
Robinson’s descriptions of the incinerating process which was.
resorted to. The natives were very jealous of Europeans wit-
nessing their burial ceremonies.

Mr. Bernard Shaw said the late Mr. Jno. Lyne used to
mention a case under his own observation of the burial of a
native in a hollow tree, but the body was afterwards removed.

Mr. Henry Foster remarked on the very few skulls of
natives having been found, which was, no doubt, due to their
‘generally burning their dead.

SEPTEMBER 14, 1908.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Wednesday evening, September 14, 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :—

(1) Additions to the Tasmanian Molluscan Fauna. By W.
L. May.

This paper, a portion of which was read by the Secretary
to the Council, is of a technical character, and describes the
results of dredging near the 1co-fathom line off the south coast
of Tasmania.

Mr. R. M. Johnston referred to the two species mentioned
by Mr. May as belonging to a family of fissure-grooved shells
of very ancient origin.

(2) On Solar Eclipses, illustrated by lantern slides. By
eee Kingsmill NvisA

The author referred to the total eclipse of the sun, to take
place on May 9, 1910, and the proposed visit of an English
expedition to observe it in Tasmania. Owing to the rarity
of solar eclipses, expeditions have generally to be made to dis-
tant countries by those who require to investigate the phe-
nomena of eclipses. It happens that Tasmania is the only land
in the world from which the total phase of that eclipse will be
observable, if we except the icy regions near the South Pole.
The central line of the eclipse would pass a little to the south

xii

of Tasmania, whilst the northern edge of the totality would
hardly extend to Launceston. Tasmania would have, therefore,
on the occasion a unique importance in the eyes of astrono-
mers, who would be attracted from distant parts of the world.
There had been one astronomical expedition to ‘Tasmania
which led to important results, namely, the American expedi-
tion for observing the transit of Venus in 1874. The object of
that expedition was to obtain data for a more accurate deter-
mination of the distance of the sun from the earth, which is
the largest base line we have for astronomical measurements.
Incidental to that expedition was the accurate determination
of the latitude and longitude of a station in the Hobart Bar-
racks, which was done by means of simultaneous observations
taken at the Melbourne Observatory and by the American
astronomers at Hobart. The Agent-General had forwarded
letters from General Tennant asking for information as to
eligible sites for the observation of the eclipse. Mr. Kingsmill
explained and illustrated by lantern slides total eclipses of the
sun with the corona in each case extending far beyond the sun
as obscured by the moon. But for this a total eclipse would
mean for the time being absolute and total darkness. It was
found that when a profuse crop of sun spots showed the sun
to be in exuberant activity, the action of this exceptional ex-
citement produced a corresponding influence on the magnetic
state of the earth. There was a large and valuable body of
evidence available to demonstrate that there did exist some
sympathy between periods of solar agitation and periods of
excited terrestrial magnetism.

The Chairman thought there were three places which stood
out as eligible for the purposes Mr. Kingsmill had mentioned:
1, Near lighthouse on Bruni Head (South Bruni), 335ft. above
high-water mark. Access from Great Taylor’s Bay. 2. South-
port Bluff, nearly opposite lighthouse. Access from a jetty on
the south side of Southport, with deep water near at hand, and
good anchorage; thence two or three miles’ cartage to the
Bluff. Depth of water at the entrance to Southport, 10 to 17
fathoms. 3. Between Point Arthur and second look-out on
south side of Recherche Bay, and about six miles south of
Southport Bluff. Entrance to Recherche Bay has depth of
from 8 to 16 fathoms, with good anchorage inside.

Mr. R. M. Johnston referred to the importance of the ex-
pedition to Tasmania, and hoped institutions on the mainland
would join in the reception of such an important body of
visitors.

Dr. Noetling enlarged on the grandeur of the total eclipse
of the sun, which he had witnessed in India, and said that
scientists were very keen on observations at such a time to
try to discover another planet believed to exist nearer to the
sun than the planet Mercury. At the forthcoming observations
in Tasmania he feared the sun would be rather low down in
the heavens at the ‘hour at which the total eclipse would take
place, namely, 4 p.m. Would not the top of Mount Wellington
be the most suitable situation for the observations?

xili

Mr. Piesse thought that the South Bruni site was the best
of those mentioned by Mr. Stephens. Maatsuyker Island or
Port Davey might be suitable if helpers could be got, as the
iarther west the better. He also mentioned positions near
Daniel’s Bay and Mill’s Reef. He was doubtful whether any
real advantage would be gained in going south of Hobart.
Mount Rumney would be an excellent situation, he thought.
Mount Wellington was apt to be cloudy in the afternoon, whilst
Mount Rumney was not so.

Mr. Bernard Shaw moved the following resolution:—‘ That
in connection with the proposed expedition to observe the
total eclipse of the sun on May 9, 1910, a letter be addressed
to the Premier urging the necessity for a careful examination
by an observer acquainted with astronomical requirements of
sites which appear most likely to be suitable for the purposes
of the expedition and the collection of information on the fol-
lowing points:—Climate; protection required for the instru-
ments and observers at the chosen station; amount of cloud
and rainfall; liability to fogs; accessibility for members of the
expedition, and for any other purpose; natural harbour accom-
modation; facilities for obtaining material and labour for erec-
tion of temporary buildings, and facilities for commissariat.”

Mr. R. M. Johnston seconded the motion, which was car-
ried.

OCTOBER 1) 1908:

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, October 12, 1908.

Mr. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., in the chair.

Messrs. KE. J. Roberts, M.B., B.S., and Leonard E. Hubbard
were elected Fellows of the Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :—

(1) The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements. By
Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

The author points out in great detail that the vocabulary
of the aborigines was very limited in extent. Calder, whose
compilation was probably the most comprehensive, enumerated
only 1135 words, some of which were unquestionably adapted
from European sources. The results of his investigation tended
to show that the aborigines did not have different names for
the different kinds of stone implements they used. He thought
he had proved that the Tasmanian natives only had one word
for their stone implements.

(2) On the conclusions of Dr. Noetling respecting the
Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements. By Hermann
B. Ritz, M.A.

xXiv

Further particulars of the subject are given in the paper.
The author remarks that the records were very meagre, and
that these were made by men who had no special knowledge
of philology. The number of words in the aboriginal language
was small, much smaller than the lists which had been drawn
up would lead one to expect. Many of the words, apparently
different, he believed to be really identical, and the apparent
difference was due to the habit the Tasmanians possessed, in
common with the South Sea Islanders, of interchanging mem-
bers of various sound groups. i

Mr. R. M. Johnston said their attention hitherto had been
confined to the things themselves,: instead of to the language
applied to them. Both the Tasmanian and Australian races
would afford a great field in the future to the philological stu-
dent, and Dr. Noetling had opened up a question that would
be pursued with great interest. It was the beginning of a very
important study in connection with the aborigines. He pointed
out that already an important work had been performed in
getting phonographic records of some of the old aboriginal
songs and speeches by the late Mrs. Fanny Smith. He hoped
that permanent casts of these records would be made, so that
they could be preserved indefinitely.

Dr. Noetling thought that Mr. R. M. Johnston’s suggestion
that the records of Mrs. Fanny Smith’s songs and speeches
should be preserved, was a most excellent one.

Mr. Bernard Shaw said that he would bring the question
of getting permanent copies of the Fanny Smith records before
the Council.

The Chairman said it was a matter of regret that so little
was really known of the early history of the Tasmanian natives.
No attempt had been made to record their language until it
had become to some extent corrupted by contact with Euro-
peans and others.

NOVEMBER 16, 1908.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, November 16, 10908.

His Excellency the Governor, Sir Gerald Strickland,
K.C.M.G., President, in the chair.

Mr. Bernard Shaw -offered the President the hearty con-
gratulations of the Royal Society on this safe return to Tas-
mania. He had received numerous congratulations from
various public bodies since his return, but none more heartily
joined in them than the Fellows and Associates of the Royal
Society.

The President, in reply, thanked the Fellows present very
heartily for their kind welcome, which reminded him of the
welcome extended to him by Mr. Morton upon his arrival at

Colombo, when first on his way to Tasmania. He had then
telegraphed to assure them of the interest he would always
take in the proceedings of this Society, and he could further
assure them that this interest would continue as long as he
had the honour to serve His Majesty as his representative in
Tasmania.

The Rey. E. H. Thompson, the Rev. A. H. Mitchell, and
Lieut.-Colonel E. TI. Watchorn were elected Fellows of the
Society.

REPORT.

The report of a Committee appointed to consider the ques-
tion of a possible reduction in the rate of subscription of
Fellows was read by the Secretary to the Council. In this
report the Committee trace the history of the Royal Society
for the past sixty years as gathered from the records in the
Library. In 1848 the number of members was 123, and the
subscription £1 per annum. In 1853 the number of members
was 236, with a corresponding increase in the amount of sub-
scriptions paid. In 1854 the subscription was raised to £1 Ios.
per annum, and this at first considerably increased the income
of the Society, but in the suceeding years the records show a-
gradual falling off, until in 1861 the number of members, now
called Fellows, is reduced to 106, the amount realised being
£159 tos. In this year, at the Annual Meeting, a motion is
submitted for a return to the original rate of subscription, but
this is negatived by the casting vote of the Chairman. The
report traces in detail the gradual declension in the next twenty
years, the minimum being reached in 1880, when the number
of Fellows was 68, and the income from subscriptions £102.
The subsequent records of number of Fellows and amount of
subscriptions were too incomplete to enable the Committee to
trace the financial history of the Society in detail, but the
tables recently compiled by the Honorary Treasurer give the
receipts and expenditure for the four years from 1904 to 1907.
They came to the conclusion that the main cause of diminished
membership and income was the increase of the subscription
in 1854. The Committee report the receipt of remarks and
suggestions from Fellows resident in Launceston and its
vicinity, who point out that all they get in return for their
subscriptions is the publication of volumes of the Proceedings
of the Society at uncertain intervals, and that the long delay
in the publication of original papers places all authors at a
serious disadvantage. They would favour a general reduction
in the amount of the annual subscription as soon as it could
be safely done, and an immediate reduction in the case of
country members. They also suggest that balance-sheets of
receipts and expenditure should be published in an improved
form, and that the get-up of the annual volumes should be
ereatly improved; but these suggestions had been anticipated
by the Council, and are already taking effect.

The report concludes with the following recommen-
dations :—

Xvi

1. That the rate of subscription for all Fellows resident
beyond a radius of.15 miles from Hobart be reduced from £1
Ios. to £1 per annum.

2. That the utmost economy be observed in regulating the
expenditure already authorised, and that no additional expenses
be incurred without the sanction of the Society.

3. That any balance available out of the income of the
current year be expended on the binding of the Library set
of annual volumes for the last nine years, on the binding of
other important publications now useless for purposes of re-
ference, and on the purchase of recent works in various
branches of science, so far as may be found practicable. ©

4. That Fellows be requested to use every effort to so far
increase the membership of the Society as to make it possible
to effect a general reduction in the rate of the annual subscrip-
tion at the end of 1909.

Mr. T. Stephens, as Chairman of the Committee, moved the
adoption of the Report, to give Fellows present an opportunity
of expressing their opinions on the recommendations.

Mr. R. M. Johnston thought that original papers read
should see the light of day as early as possible. He would like
to have an opportunity of looking into the report at his leisure,
and for that reason moved that it be laid on the table. ‘The
motion was seconded by Mr. Brettingham Moore, but was
subsequently withdrawn.

Mr. Stephens said that the Council had now made ample
provision for the publication of original papers, and no such
trouble as had occurred in the past was likely to happen
again.

The President said that the immediate question before the
meeting was whether the Fellows and others interested in the
Society should be given an opportunity of carefully consider-
ing the report and arriving at a decision thereon after delibera-
tion. So far as he was concerned it would give him pleasure
to be present at a special meeting at which this report might
be fully considered. It was, no doubt, a very important decision
that the Society was asked to give, and should, if possible, be
unanimous. This Society had survived for two, and very nearly
three generations. That was a great record for things Aus-
tralian. It fulfilled a real need in the community, by offering
a non-political, non-sectarian, and genuinely scientific centre
where original thought could find a sympathetic atmosphere.
They could not expect that original thought would be forth-
coming with the regularity of blackberries in autumn, and there
must be ups and downs in the volume of interest, both as re-
gards the readers of scientific papers and those who wished to
listen to them. It should be their object not only to keep the
Society alive, but to keep it alive in accordance with the spirit
and needs and claims of the times. The amount of subscription
was certainly a factor in that co-ordination, and he observed

XVil

with great pleasure that the financial tone of the report now
before them was on a plain and satisfactory basis as to the
difficulties that were referred to when they last met to discuss
financial questions. The position was very clear, and, he would
venture to say, more hopeful. Although the annual income
was very small, the difference between it and the annual ex-
penditure was a negligible quantity. Although there was no
reserve fund, they had not to deplore any funded or floating
debt, and they might refer with satisfaction to their assets,
which consisted not merely of the library, and the position
they held in having the right to use these premises, but also
in the good will and position which the Society enjoyed. It
was merely a question of using these valuable assets to the
best advantage.

The first recommendation was put to the vote:—“ That the
rate of subscription for all Fellows residing beyond a radius
of 15 miles from Hobart be reduced to £1 per annum.”

Mr. Bernard Shaw said that the Council of the Society was
exercising the strictest economy. As Treasurer, he was able
to express a hope that at the end of the year they would not
find their accounts overdrawn.

Dr. Noetling said there were so few members outside the
15 miles radius that the total loss by the reduction proposed
would not be more than £8. It was felt that if the subscrip-
tion was reduced to £1 the probability was that the number
of non-resident members would be largely increased.

Mr. Lyndhurst Giblin said that no previous notice had been
given of a recommendation which proposed an alteration in
one of the Rules of the Society. Was it competent for the
meeting to agree to such a, proposal without the previous
notice prescribed by these Rules?

The President ruled that the objection was fatal, and, after
sion, the consideration of the report was deferred to a
neeting to be held on Wednesday, November 25.

i
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Q
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Sag

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ :—

An Introduction to the study of the Aboriginal Speech of
asmaniaa By waterimarnn) Be) RianzviA’

The author says that the life of a population invariably
assumed a form which largely depended on the climate and
geographical features and the facility of intercourse with the
denizens of other lands. ‘To the observing ear of the scientist
the remnants of the feasts of the aborigines, their implements,
and the scanty records of their words and doings spoke in a
language of their own of those whose places we had taken for
good or ill. It was to the words, the records of the actual songs
of the voice that was still, that he would confine their attention,
and their present purpose was to clear the ground and mark
out the foundation for constructing a scientific reproduction
of the language of the aborigines of Tasmania. As far as he
was aware, the work done in that direction had not hitherto.

XVvill

been extensive. After stating his attempt to simplify the spell-
ing, Mr. Ritz compared three versions of an aboriginal song,
accounting for every word, and explaining the meaning of the
sentences. He said there was no sign of any accidence. ‘The
words seemed invariable in form and widely applicable in mean-
ing. The words were probably supplemented by gestures to
define their exact meaning. In that respect a parallel was
found in the sentences of the Chinese language. The fact that
the song existed in different dialects made it most valuable.
Quite probably the song was connected with some important
‘tribal ceremonies.

The President asked if the half-castes on the Straits Islands
retained any traces of the native language.

Mr. Ritz said that it was scarcely possible. Constant inter-
course with the whites would cause them to neglect their own
tongue, except as far as they wished to keep it for secret con-
versations.

Dr. Noetling and Mr. R. M. Johnston spoke in high terms
of the value of the researches of Mr. Ritz, and hoped he would
continue his studies.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. W. L. May presented to the Society a number of new
species of shells, dredged by himself and Mr. Hedley from a
depth of too fathoms off Cape Pillar. There were 80 species
in all, many of which had been found at a depth of 100 fathoms
off Sydney, and at a similar depth off the coast of South Aus-
tralia. Amongst them were specimens of Pteropods, free
swimming organisms, which lived on the surface, but whose
shells fell to the bottom when they died.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said that Messrs. May and Hedley had
performed a very notable feat in presenting to the Society one-
eighth of its molluscan fauna at one time.

NOVEMBER 25, 1908.

A Special General Meeting of the Society was held at the
Museum on Wednesday evening, November 25, 1908, for the
purpose of considering a proposed modification of Rule 16,
and for other business.

His Excellency Sir Gerald Strickland, K.C.M.G., President,
in the chair.

Mr. T. Stephens said that a Committee had been appointed
to consider the question of reducing the annual subscription,
and other matters, and had brought up the following recom-
mendations :—

1. That the rate of subscription for all Fellows resident be-
yond a radius of 15 miles from Hobart be reduced from £1
ios. to £I per annum.

xix
2. That the utmost economy be observed in regulating the

expenditure already authorised, and that no additional expenses
be incurred without the sanction of the Society.

3. That any balance available out of the income of the cur-
rent year be expended on the binding of library set of annual
volumes for the last nine years, on the binding of other im-
portant publications now useless for the purposes of reference,
and on the purchase of recent works in various branches of
science, so far as may be found practicable.

4. That Fellows be requested to use every effort to so far
increase the membership of the Society as to make it possible
to effect a general reduction in the rate of annual subscription
at the end of 1909. a

He moved that the recommendations of the Committee be
adopted.

Mr. Bernard Shaw seconded the motion, which was agreed
to.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said that the Fellows of the Society
were indebted to His Excellency the Governor for giving up
his time, which was so much taxed in every way, to attend
the meeting. He wished His Excellency and the Lady Edeline
Strickland and family a Merry Christmas and a Happy New
MW @alig,

His Excellency, in reply, said that it was always a great
pleasure to him to attend the meetings of the Society, and he
wished it continued prosperity and renewed vigour.

NOREST ON. AS Chi PPED RT BOULDER = FOUND
NSA GR MIRON. (Cateye IN Pils all)

iby Eriaz Nortiine, M.A. Ph.D. exc:

(Read May 11th, 1908.)

It has rather been a problem whence the Tasmanian
Aborigines obtained the material for their implements.
The discovery of certain localities where the rock suit-
able for implements occurred in situ, and which were
unquestionably worked by the Aborigines, has partly
solved the problem. It is unquestionable that the
Aborigines obtained a certain amount of the raw
material from these so-called quarries, but it is equally
certain that a large portion was obtained from different
sources.

One of the best-known “native quarries” is that
situated on Coal Hill, near Melton-Mowbray. A careful
statistic of the specimens collected by me around
Melton-Mowbray gave the following results :—

Cents, or alll svngley Bove. a0 60 SOs Mer Came,
Chertyinommtienqlanh yaa Onl 5
Roncellamivestrus | +). ema WS 3
BRE CCIM Lette tts... MO RpAn opt 0.7 y,
Others not included under

Hie Alowe Inearchiless.. 5 24.) Boll ts

The above figures conclusively prove that, though
the quarry on Coal Hill was conveniently situated and
easily reached from the camping grounds near the
river, only 6.1 per cent. of the implements found were
derived from it. Far the larger portion, that is to say
93.9 per cent. of the implements, were made from rocks
which came from other places besides the ‘quarry on
Coal Hill. A priori one would assume that, with such
a convenient place as the quarry on Coal Hill close at
hand, the overwhelming majority of the implements
would be manufactured from material obtained from

2 NOTES ON A CHIPPED BOULDER.

this place, but the above figures prove that it is not the
case. I had already noticed this fact when collecting,
but only after carefully sorting the specimens could I
fully prove it.

Considering that the quarry on Coal Hill was so
close to the camping grounds, and that, notwith-
standing its situation 93.9 per cent. of the implements
were made from a different kind of rock, we are
forced to assume that the quality of the rock was the
most essential feature when it was intended to produce
an implement. Though unlimited quantities were avail-
able in the quarry on Coal Hill, the quality of this par-
ticular kind of chert was not such that it was highly
treasured by the Aborigines as a suitable material for
implements. They unquestionably preferred other kinds
of cherts to that occurring on Coal Hill; but the ques-
tion arises, whence did they procure the raw material,
of which they consumed such large quantities in the
manufacture of their implements?

From the study of the specimens I collected I
had already come to the conclusion that the gravel de-
posits of the various creeks, but above all the gravel and
conglomerate deposits of diluvial age, were the source
from which suitable material was obtained. I noticed
that numerous implements, usually of the less finished
type, represent fragments of water-worn pebbles or
boulders, the smooth, water-worn crust being still pre-
_ served. It is, however, not till a find I recently made
on a camping ground north of Kempton that this view
was fully confirmed.

This camping ground is situated on the eastern slope
of a low hill which stands out prominently from the sur-
rounding flat country. It is a considerable distance away
from any present watercourse, and about 200 feet, I
should say, above the level of the River Jordan. Here
I found the water-worn pebble, which forms the subject
of this paper. I first discovered the core, and, as my
attention was drawn to some fragments lying close about
it, which seemed to be of the same kind of rock, I col-
lected a few, and tried to fit them to the core. They
were failures, but after repeated attempts I succeeded in
fitting one to its original position, and, encouraged by
this, I hunted for more, and eventually succeeded in

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 3

finding sixteen fragments which could be refitted and
placed in their original position before they were flaked
off.

I thus succeeded in restoring the greater portion of -
the original boulder, and, though a good part is still
missing, and will probably never be found, that which
has been preserved is of the utmost interest.

As it presents itself now we can distinguish three
different parts, two of which are preserved, while the
third is missing, but its shape can easily be recon-
structed. These parts are—

1. The core (Nucleus).

2, The spalls or fragments falling off when
the pebble was worked.

3. The fragment used as an implement.

1. THE CORE.—This part measures about 7 x 5 x
4 inches, and weighs 5lbs. 10oo0z. at cap. It is some-
what irregularly oblong in shape, and the lower side in
particular shows the surface of a well-worn water pebble.
The upper side has been subjected to a good deal of
work, and, if merely judged by the planes of fracture,
at least seven flakes, one of which has not measured less
than 4% inches in length, have been struck off.

If nothing more were preserved than this specimen
we could at once recognise it as a core—that is to say,
the remains of a larger-sized pebble from which suitable
pieces have been struck off, and which was rejected as
being without further use. The size, the weight, and
the absolutely unsuitable shape are entirely against the
assumption that this specimen might perhaps have been
actively used as an implement—a hamnuierstone, for in-
stance. Even without the flakes being found, the even
planes of fracture would prove conclusively that this
specimen has been submitted to a passive and not too
active treatment, in other words, that it is a Nucleus,
which, after the desired object had been attained, was
rejected.

The whole surface, including the planes of fracture,
are covered with a thick patina of yellow-brown colour,

4 NOTES ON A CHIPPED BOULDER.

which is, however, somewhat lighter on the planes of
fracture than on the original crust.

2. THE SPALLS.—I collected altogether 39 frag-
ments, weighing 2lbs. 144%oz. in the aggregate, which
apparently were struck off this core; and 34 could be
replaced in their original position. It is very probable
that the remaining 5 flakes belong to the same specimen,
but too much is missing to permit them to be fitted
together with the others. However that may be, the
fact that 34 flakes, weighing 2lb. 12%oz., could again
be replaced in their original position, is of the greatest
interest.

The flakes vary, of course, in size and shape; but on
the whole they are of a lamelliform character—that is to
say, of comparatively small thickness. Most of them
show a fine bulb of percussion, and it may be said that
almost every one of them could have been used as an
implement. I select only two—the largest and the
smallest—for description. The largest measures 5 inches
in length, and exhibits a fine, smooth pollical face; its
general outline is somewhat triangular, the base broad,
and pointed at the opposite end. The two lateral edges
are sharp; the indical face shows a good deal of flaking;
the smallest flake measures about 214 inches, and is of
irregular circular shape; the edges are very sharp; the
pollical face shows a fair bulb of percussion; the indical
face is flat, but shows no traces of chipping. Weight,
80z.

2 RE FRAGMENT WEE WAS SUSE SAS
AN IMPLEMENT.—Unfortunately this is missing—
in fact, it can thardly be expected that this were pre-
served, as it was evidently the desired object and in
_ whose manufacture the pebble was broken. By refitting
the fragments to their original place, the general out-
line of this missing fragment could, however, be ob-
tained by filling up the empty space with plaster of
Paris or any other suitable material. This showed that
the flake, which was apparently desired for an imple-
ment, was of triangular shape, and rather thin. It
measured about 4 inches by 21%, was broad at the base,
and sharply pointed at the opposite end. The lateral

SNE IMISIUIA INO III ET, Uo Nos IIS Doy Neo 5

edges were sharp and cutting, the pollical face smooth,
the indical face showing a median ridge (1).

One of the fragments is broken, and the fracture
shows that the material is a dark black chert of very
fine texture. The outward appearance of neither the
core nor the flakes, which are covered with the same
patina of light, yellowish-grey colour, would indicate
that the actual colour of the rock 1s dark black. The’
comparative thickness of the crust of weathering proves,
however, that the core and flakes must be of consider-
able age, because such a thick patina as exhibited by
this specimen is not formed in a few years.

The specimen here described is unique for Tas-
mania, and we can only wonder at the chain of lucky
circumstances that made its discovery possible. The
find of the core, with a large number of spalls falling
off during the manufacture of the desired object, all
lying close around it, proves conclusively that the work-
ing took place exactly at the spot where it ‘had been
found. Nothing disturbed the core or the flakes since
the day when they were struck off from a waterworn
pebble, weighing probably not less than 1olb. Yet, as
proved by the thickness of the patina, a considerable
time must have elapsed since this pebble was broken.
It would rather be rash to assume that the very last
Aboriginal who visited this camping ground left core
and spalls behind, perhaps in a hurried flight. On the

(1) Since the above was written I re-visited the place where
the above specimen was found. Not only did I succeed in
finding 19 more flakes, 17 of which could be fitted to the core,
but I actually succeeded in finding the missing flake, the object
of breaking the pebble. This had been carried away about 50
paces to the north from the place where I found the nucleus
and its fragments, and there it had been dropped. It is the
exact counterpart of the cast, and I must confess that, had I
not recognised the likeness with the cast I had made, I would
have probably left the specimen behind. It appears, as it was
surmised, that this piece was taken away to be used, but, as it
was apparently not suitable, it was simply rejected, and the
whole work of breaking this large pebble was in vain. ‘The
edges of this flake are broken, and it may perhaps have been
used, but there is no marginal chipping, and the specimen was
apparently rejected exactly as it was when it had been obtained
after so much labour. This is perhaps the most interesting
discovery of all, inasmuch as the missing specimen was traced
and actually recognised from the cast, representing its likeness.

6 NOTES ON A CHIPPED BOULDER,

other hand, if we assume that core and flakes had been
lying for any length of time at the place where they
were found it would be surprising that they were not
disturbed by later generations visiting this place. The
only way to account for it is that soon after core and
flakes had been produced the drifting sand covered it
entirely, thus preserving it almost completely as it
had been left. Only of late, when the sand had shifted,
it was exposed again. Lucky it was that the plough
had not gone over this spot, otherwise it would have
been impossible to collect such a large number of frag-
ments belonging to one and the same core.

A number of interesting facts and questions arise
from the study of this specimen. Though not com-
pletely restored to its entire shape, we can state with
absolute certainty that the original was a pebble or
boulder, well worn and smooth all over its surface, of
deep black colour, weighing not less than tolb. As
there are no gravel deposits or conglomerate anywhere
near the place where it was found, it must have been
picked up at a considerable distance, and been carried
to the camping ground to be used for the manufacture
of implements.

The Tasmanian Aborigines have been described as
a lazy lot, and it is therefore hardly probable that the
Aborigine who found this pretty heavy boulder carried
is for a long distance to his camping ground unless he
valued the material. If he valued the material it is sur-
prising that he used so very little of it; the size of the
core proves that it contains the greater portion of the
bulk of the original pebble. The fragments prove that
one, perhaps two, flakes have been turned into imple-
ments. That fragment which probably has been turned
into an implement seems to differ very little from those
that have been rejected. In fact, considering the very
crude flakes that have often been used as implements,
it is astonishing to find that the two specimens which
have been here described, and which are distinguished
by a fine smooth pollical face were not used as tools.

It is very difficult to find a suitable explanation. If
the rock was of the valued kind, why is it that so much
waste was left behind? If not, why should the lazy
Aboriginal trouble to carry the heavy pebble for a long

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. a

distance from the place where he found it to his camp?
Can it be possible that it was desired to produce
nothing but an implement of a certain size and weight,
and that all other flakes, however useful they may other-
wise have been, were rejected till the desired object was
obtained? If this be the case, and I can see no other
satisfactory explanation derived from the evidence of
the core and the rejected flakes, we have to consider all
the archaeolithic implements used by the Aborigines as
a produce of the moment, manufactured then and there
for the purpose for which they were required, and,
having served their end, to be rejected without being
applied to further use. This would to a certain extent
explain the rather astonishing number of archaeolithes
we find on the camping grounds, some of which seem to
be very serviceable still.

NOTES ON A CHIPPED BOULDER.

Roy. Soc. Ta>m. 1908.

Dr. Noetling, Photo.

CORE AND FLAKES, Kempton.

BY FRITZ NOETLING. M.A., PH.D.,

Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1908.

Dr Noetling, Photo.
CORE AND FLAKES, Kempton.

IDE

1g) STATE BORROWING.

STATE BORROWING, AND SINKING FUNDS
POR THB REDEMPHGN OF STATE Dats:
REGARD IO” PRO MEAUN ee
IPOQUUN TE QUE WADE

BykomVn | OANSRONGmeS:©., EoS.S
(Read June 16th, 1908.)

PART I.—STATE BORROWING.

The success of young colonies, such as those of Aus-
tralia, has, in a large measure been due to the sacrifices
which the earlier pioneers made, from time to time, in
making timely provision for the opening up of Aus-
tralia’s vast virgin lands, by means of roads, railways,
bridges, jetties, ‘narbours, etc., in advance of actual
occupation or settlement.

To any thoughtful person it is obvious, at the initial
stage of a colony's history, it would be impossible to
construct such costly undertakings without the aid of
foreign capital.

Since the year 1842 the six states of Australia have
practically entered into partnership with foreign capi-
talists in this important work of providing railways,
roads, bridges, ‘harbours, in advance of further settle-
ment, and in no other way: would it be possible to have
succeeded in making the outlay of £240,149,727, in a
period of 64 years, or at “mel rate of £5,024,000 per
annum.

The following is a brief statement showing how this
large amount of borrowed capital was invested :—

HOW BORROWED CAPITAL WAS INVESTED BY THE

STATES.
ee PER
INVESTED IN AMOUNT £. Con
Railwaysand Tramways I4I,271,521 58°83
Telegraphs 3.752.942 1°56
Roads, Bridges, Lights, Harbours, ete. 25 387,083 10 57
Water Supply and Sewerage 30,093,318 12°53
Defences 2,409.893 I‘or
Other Public Works and Services 28 093,589 II‘74
Unexpended balance 9.041, 381 3°76
£, 240.149:727 100

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S.

Has Australia benefited by this
£240,149,727, or, what may be more properly termed—
Taking into Partnership a Foreign Capitalist in a pro-
fitable undertaking?

The best answer to this query is to contrast the year
1870 with the year 1906-7, within which time the bulk
of the Debt was contracted, as shown in the following

Borrowing of

table :—
Hy
< gj
PARTICULARS. 1870 1906-7. [IN@RHASE. Mules
AM
Population 1,652,000 4,197,038 2,543,038 Bas
Ex-Australian Ex-
ports £26 253.000 69,794 000 43,541.000 2°75
Sheep 41,639.000 83,798 893 42,159,893 1°96
Cattle 4,278,000 8,636,360 4,358,360 197
Railways—
Miles Open 994 14 067 13.073 7°63
Invested Capital 49,829,000 £140,707 404 130 878,404 7°63
Profit on Work-
ing per head 5s. 71 30s. Id 24s 6d.
Interest on Debt
per head 17s 2d. AIs tod. 2As 8d.
Taxation per head 47s. 8d. 66s. 7d. 18s. 11d.
Taxation, less profit
on Working of
Railways 42s. Id. 36s 6d. 5s. 7d.
Public Debt 4 28,328,000 £240,148,727 £211,820,727 611
Income of the
People—
Estimated Annual
Value Mil. £’s. 72°32 193°90 121.58 2.77
Capital Value
Mil. £’s. 2,066°28 5,540'08 3.473°80 2°77
Ditto after deduct-
ing the whole of
Public Debt
Mils. £°s. 2,037°95 5,299°93 3,267 91 2°70
Ex-Australian
Trade—
Total Imports and
Exports Mils £’s. 36°09 II4 52 78:43 3°26

A careful study of the contrast in the conditions of

the Six States of the Commonwealth between the years
1870 and 1906-7, covering a period of 36 years in all,
should convince all pessimistic observers that the past
policy of entering into partnership with foreign capi-
talists to the extent of 240 million pounds, instead of
being a mistake or a hindrance to Australia’s financial
and industrial development and progress, has been the
principal means whereby our present conditions, con-

Le STATE BORROWING.

trasted with the former period, has in every way so
markedly improved.

It may be of advantage to summarise some of the
features which thave led to this most satisfactory
result :—

SUMMARY Olsens Wilts:

POPULATION.—The population has increased from
1.65 millions to 4.19 millions, or 2.59 fold.

TOTAL EXTERNAL TRADE.—The total Imports
and Exports (Ex-Australian) has increased from
36.09 million pounds to 114.52 million pounds, or
Balyolds

RAILWAYS :—

MILEAGE WORKING.—The miles open of Rail-
ways in the six States has increased from 994 miles
to 14,067 miles, or 14.15 fold.

CAPITAL INVESTED.—The capital invested in
construction and equipment of State Government
lines has increased from 9.82 million pounds to
140.70 million pounds, or 7.63 fold.

PROFIT ON WORKING—tThe profit on working
all State Railways has imcreased from 5s. 7d. per
head to 30s. Id., or 5.39 fold.

INTEREST BURDEN ,ONMSTATE DEBTS Sie
interest burden on all State debts increased from
17s) 3d. per head to 4rsimod:, or 2:43 fold:

INTERES BURDEN CNEALL. STAT EaDiisass:
ele

‘SS amount from profit on the working of State
railways alone, increased from 11s. 7d. per head to
iis. Od., Or increase of 2deper head.

Notwithstanding that Total Interest Burden on all
State debts has increased by 24s. 8d. per head, such has
been the increase in the profitable working of the State
railways alone—viz., 24s. 6d. per head—that the total in-
terest burden connected with the Total Debt of 240.14
million pounds has only been raised by 2d. per head.
That is, the profits to the State Treasuries from work-
ing railways (apart from the immeasurable material
benefit of opening up the lands by the cheap and rapid
mode of transit and communication have already almost
wholly wiped off the taxpayers’ interest burden on the

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.0O., F.S.5S. 13

whole of the accumulated unredeemed Debt of 240.14
million pounds.

The fundamental error in the views of certain critics,
who lack expert knowledge of matters pertaining to the
economics of State finance as applied to the Australian
States, is the evident common failure to appreciate the
scope of the functions of the general governments of
the various States of Australia as compared with those
of the United Kingdom, and fail to discern the impor-
tant distinction between debts incurred for purposes of
protection or aggressive warfare and capital invest-
ments (also bearing the name Public Debt) incurred
and expended in improving and permanently enhancing
the value of the Public estate by means of railways,
roads, and harbours. In the self-governing States of
Australia, the scope of general government—owing to
the peculiar conditions of lands thinly populated with
vast undeveloped areas—embraces many functions
which, in the earlier stages of development, would be
impossible to resign either to local bodies or to private
enterprise as in the older more densely-populated
countries.

Unless this fundamental distinction of the scope of
the general government in old and new countries be
thoroughly considered and allowed for, all comparisons
relating to the proportion and Cost of Public Services
and public debt between countries so differently con-
ditioned would be worse than useless. In the United
Kingdom the greater part of these services (70.89 per
_cent.) is left to private enterprise (railways) and to local
government.

Only 29.11 per cent. of the Total Debt for all such
purposes in the United Kingdom comes directly within
the scope of the revenue and expenditure of the Im-
perial Government. In Australia as much as 93.74 per
cent. of such functions come directly within the scope
of the responsibility of the general government of the
various States.

This is best appreciated by contrasting the propor-
tion of Loans or Capital expenditure incurred under the
general functions of government in respect of special
public works and services in Australia and the United
Kingdom, as in the accompanying corporation table :—

2 EOSIN I ee OIE

STATE BORROWING.

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BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.0., F.S.S.

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‘SINAWLISHANI 'IVIIdVO

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 17

It does not require much knowledge of industrial
economy to realise the fact that the wealth of any
country is greatly multiplied by the introduction of
machinery, which facilitates the fresh creation of pro-
ducts or diminishes the cost of production or transport.
All the hopes of economists for the amelioration and
improvement of the material condition of a people de-
pend upon such agencies increasing at the initial stage
at a greater ratio than population, and even at a later
stage, as in the United Kingdom, the investments in
extending its railways and other public works of local
bodies during the last four years increased from
£1,623 to 1,885.2 million pounds, or at the rate of £65.5
million pounds per year, equivalent to 30s. 8d. per
head per year. Australia, which is still in the initial
stage of development, has, in similar investments, only
increased during the same period from 222.87 million
pounds to 240.14 million pounds, or at the rate of 4.31
million pounds per year, equivalent to 24s. 8d. per head
per year. Taking all these matters into consideration,
it is clearly demonstrated that Australia’s Capital in-
vestments in Railway construction and other Permanent
Public Works are, in relation to her initial stage of de-
velopment of an area nearly as large as Europe, and
also in relation to her population, progressing at a
much slower rate than the United Kingdom, which long
ago had advanced to a high stage in all equipment of
this nature.

THE IMMEASURABLE INDIRECT BENEFITS
OF RAILWAYS.

It is also a very common fallacy to assume, as some
do, that the only object which the several State Govern-
ments of Australia shad in view in opening up the
country by means of railways was confined to the direct
profit which they might possibly receive into the State
revenues from the net receipts of the railways, them-
selves regarded as private undertakings; that is the only
view they can take of the vast wealth-producing in-
fluence of railways to a country is restricted to the
petty consideration as to how far the extension if Rail-
ways benefit the Railway carrier, as such. If the mere
receipts from freight cover working expenses and the

18 STATE BORROWING.

interest on borrowed or invested Capital, the Railways,
according to this restrictive view, are productive ; if the
working receipts fail immediately to wholly cover both
charges, they are deemed to be unproductive, a loss to
the country, and a menace to its financial stability. This
reasoning is obviously faulty.

To the Country as a State, or to its Producing In-
dustries or Consumers, the whole of the freight charges
of a Railway, regarded as an item of State revenue—
even though covering working expenses and interest on
Capital—form the merest fleabite as compared with the
actual immeasurable indirect value, added to the
country’s wealth-producing industries.

The principal additions to the wealth of the country
due to Railways are derived as follows :—

(1). By the saving of time and of cost of transit.

(2). By giving commercial value to vast natural
products hitherto lacking value, owing to lack
of cheap modes of transit.

(3). By the impetus given to the creation of fresh
wealth in areas formerly barren or unproduc-
tive.

To estimate the “ Wealth of Exchange” added to
any country—especially a State with vast areas of virgin
soils—would be a difficult matter. We may know this
wealth to be great in itself, and vastly of gréater im-
portance than the possible revenues of the Railway in
itself as an undertaking, but we have no direct means
of ascertaining its value quantitatively. Items (2) and
(3) can only be vaguely guessed at. But the wealth and
other advantages gained by saving time and labour (1)
through the improvement in means of transport can be
very closely approximated.

The gain from this hidden cause, although of neces-
sity not seen in the receipts of the Railway regarded
as an undertaking, becomes at once apparent when we
try to realise the difference in cost of transport as be-
tween the Railways now in operation and the more im-
perfect means in common use on bad roads prior to
their introduction.

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.0., F.S.S. 19

Prior to the opening up of the States’ lands and the
Loans expenditure on Roads, Bridges, and Harbours,
the expenditure of time and labour in effecting the
necessary transport between points of production and
centres of population and ports of trade was very great.
Even in the limited areas when macadamised roads
existed, the cost of transit formed a heavy tax upon
either reproducer or consumer, or both, accordingly as
the product was intended for foreign or local consump-
tion.

This aspect of the case was carefully investigated in
Tasmania by the writer soon after its first Railway (the
Launceston and Deloraine Railway) was opened for
trafic in February, 1871. It was found that prior to
recular daily timed service, and the consequent reduced
carriers’ freights forced upon the latter by the Railway
competition, the average for carriers and coaches
throughout the State averaged as follows :—

Carriers & Current

Coaches prior Charges Decrease.
to 1870. (Govt. Rys.)
d. d. d. per cent.

Average Fare per Passenger

per Mile 2°92 106 1°86 63°70
Average Freight per Ton per

Mile of goods of all

Descriptions 1000 1°82 8:18 81°80

The true interpretation of this remarkable reduction
in cost of transit within a very brief period is simply
this: that for every £1 now obtained as gross receipts,
there is a hidden value saved to either producers or
consumers of the country of at least £2, apart from the
actual profits of the Railway as an undertaking.

Let us now make an estimate of what this hidden
value of railway speedy and cheaper transits means to
the States of Australia from the working of State rail-
ways in the year 1906-7.

In this year there were open for traffic 14,232%
miles of railway, whose Capital Construction and Equip-
ment amounted to £140,707,474.

20 STATE BORROWING.

Per cent to cost
of Construction.

(1) The Gross Receipts were £134,455,451 10.27
(2) The Working Expenses were 8,519,110 6 05
(3) The Net Profit on Working was 5,936,341 4°22
Less Izterest on Loans Capital 5,055,063 3.59
Net gain to State Revenue forthe year £881,279* 0°63*

If we now take into consideration the saving in time
and cost of transit as a hidden value to the States, which
was shown to be not less than £2 for every £1 gross re-
ceipts, we arrive at the conclusion that, apart from all
other indirect advantages specified elsewhere, its value
represents in the year 1906-7 a sum of £28,910,902,
equivalent to a present capital value of as much as
£826,000,000.

The whole of the States’ indebtedness of £240,149,000
seems a small affair alongside of this bona fide, though
hidden, State benefit.

A study of these significant figures should give
pause to all superficial or interested critics who may
venture to discuss the wisdom or otherwise of the policy
of the Australian States, which, notwithstanding errors
in the practical work of carrying out the functional
policy of the State, has resulted in giving room and a
productive field of work to a population of 2.55 fold
the number of 1870; and, after deducting the share of
our co-partners—our creditors if you like (that is, the
nominal debt of £240,148,727), we have a balance of the
people’s income in our favour, whose present capital
value exceeds that of 1870 (when there was only a debt
of £28,328,000) by a sum of £3,473,000,000, besides a
valuable asset in our 14,067 miles of railway, whose
effect in saving of cost of transit alone is estimated in
the year 1906-7 to be equivalent to a present capital
value of £826,000,000 sterling.

And further, let it be noted that, notwithstanding
the Interest Burden on Australian State Debts has in-
creased since 1870 by 24s. 8d. per head, such has been
the increase in the direct working profits of the State

*Note.—This item alone represents a present capital value
of £25,179,371, or as much as 17.89 per cent. of the total
value of Capital invested in construction.

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.0., F.S.S. 2a

railways alone—viz., 24s. 6d. per head in the year 1906-
7, that the total interest burden on all State Debts,
amounting to £240,149,727, has only been raised by the
insignificant sum of twopence per head of the popula-
tion.

This means (apart from the immeasurable material
benefit of opening up the hitherto waste lands by the
cheap and rapid mode of transit) the surplus profit to
the State Treasuries from railway profits alone now
practically has wiped off the taxpayers’ interest burden
on the whole of the existing unredeemed Public Debt of
£240,000,000.

The question now to ask of all panic-struck pessi-
mists, or “foes of our own household,” is, Would the
present population, with its relatively high standard of
living and its vastly increased wealth, have existed had
Hew GKeLhenciment mand Muti Scare (Ol she wyeah 1o70
succeeded in forcing upon the Colonies at that time the
retrograde cry of “No borrowing” and “ Retrench-
fame 2

Those who answer this question in the affirmative
are, indeed, dangerous advisers on financial and eco-
nomic matters affecting the State.

22 STATE BORROWING.

PART II—THE WRONGFULNESS OF CHARG-
ING PRINCIPAL OF WGOSELY “ORIGINA
WORKS OF CONSTRUCTION TO THE CON-
SOLIDATED REVENUE, AND THROUGH
UPON THE, TA XPANWEIRS EOS iN G at
EB WEAR WHEN SU@EeEhAV Y EX PiEINe
DIPURE WAS CONT RAGiDD:

The injustice to the taxpayer of the day, and the
utter impossibility of the Government of the day to
continuously adjust its schemes of taxation to suit the
revenue needs of each year, as a consequence of any
attempt to charge the Principal Original Costly Works
of Construction, Expenditure such as Railways, Jetties,
and Harbours, is best illustrated by comparing the effect
upon the taxpayers of each year in Tasmania, were the
burden of original cost wholly concentrated upon the
Consolidated Revenue of the year, instead of, as was
done LEE NRE REST (BWR DEN OF din
AGGREGATE CAPITAL INVESTED. This method
alone enables a Government to spread the burden of
the capital over present and future taxpayers equitably,
in proportion to the benefits they respectively derive
yearly, arising from the valuable assets created by the
original capital investments which are continuously pre-
served in their pristine condition by the yearly main-
tenance renewals and repairs, which, with other ordi-
nary working expenses are, and should alone be, a
legitimate charge upon the Consolidated Revenue of
the year.

THE PUBLIC DEBT OF TASMANIA.

The public debt of Tasmania on 30th June, 1906-7,
amounted to £9,528,933. £7,528,000, or nearly four-
fifths, was created since 1881, in a period of 25 years.
Within this period the larger original outlays upon
Railways, Roads, Bridges, Jetties, and Harbour were
mainly incurred during five particular years—viz., 1884,
1886 and 1889, 1890 and 1801.

The following comparative table illustrates how
disastrous and how unjust it would be to the taxpayers
of those five years, if it were at all possible to defray the
contracted capital expenditure of such necessary public
works by a charge of the Principal, instead of interest
thereon, upon each year’s Consolidated Revenue
Fund :—

3o(0loy aSoS

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.

Ss 6V 9 69 OI 61 299 L 0% ¢ ov Vgs6 L-g061
Ir 67 ~ v9 S ivit ae m= Se bv 6¢ £696 9-So61
Gg Ws Zz 19 O gz By Vor Vv gf 1Lb6 S-7o61
It 62 7 iS OS Y Se o8 oO OI bk gt QIL6 p-Co61
6 S¢ g of pes 9 & iy - OAs gzz6 £-zo61
15¢ 8@) 6 19 zs CG E SOs i KS bSge z-1061
6 oS Wl OI £z nee v I GMS 119 oo6I
Te Gig zt v9 OF oie It Tt 6 Ue | C6£8 6681
a ke Ir vg 6 of os @ i ¢ gf | zig g6gI
Sele © 16) © eZ ae Ol QI OI 6¢ o06£g L681
L oz € 66 eae so OI 8 @ iu 1$z@ 9681
vb 69 Z 09 oS @ © Q 1S @) GY OgIs C6g1
6 98z 6 SS € Ge a G Lt g ¢V | 6LLL y6er
fay @Q 8 OL ao Me he i ey Crol £691
z S¢ Vv LS GE ae i OE v ov 66EL z6QI
6 OZI G L9 oe vy ¢s 6 gs GS oe o11L 1681
‘i See € £9 oo G 09 g 6 @ 18 | Zerg o68I
9 VII € 09 Ms € Ss b 98 VAS | 610S 6881
L 99 G65 ¢ 6 6 oV v7. We | o6fP QSer
v vy z of OI II nes it ON rei IS 6o01t LQQI
WY Ofer o LS ie or zl 6 IO! Il Q@ gzoVv 9§8I
oI zS = LG i oo Il €z Z QZ LOE? CSgI
8 QL 11 $S ac 6 Iz1 IL Fait Ol 9z _COe VSgI
o gL i Oo) Pe G I G XS 6 ¢z Getz pete
see I z9Q sae eee eee I Cz oSoz ZQQI
eee Z 6S oe eee . a £o00z IQSI
19 8 0) 5 Dp 8 “Dp "Ss i 9 o) F
-pajdope uasq ‘IeaK ORAL ‘aseoi0[g *OSBOIOUT ‘Tedioutag [enV :
Sav pinoo (q) Ul WOWeXe | 2} WIM Iva_A | Apuo jso19}UT (paqyto
SponW jl Volexey, [e}OL [enjoy *poydope m29q jo onusAay Y}IA onwsIAsy s.F 000) "aAVAA
1810, F19eqo1g pey (q) poyy IN JI 1vax YoRe jo SUISICYS SuisieyD s
4 “AT ‘d UOISXRY, Ul sSedIONG JO dSvoTOUY (a epom) (‘y apo) JUHOULYy
S)
‘(aVaH Udd) AAILVIAY Ginnosny

‘NH0a0d ISHAALNI GNV NOILVXVLI NOdO LOHAAH GNV VINVWSVL JO Ldad Ol’ldond AO HIMOUD

24 STATE BORROWING.

The illustration given in the foregoing tabular com-
parison is most eloquent in demonstrating three most
important ethical and economical truths, viz. :—

(1). The injustice and impossibility, if attempted, of
collecting from the people of the year a tax of,
say, 114s. 6d. to 223s. 3d., as would be the case
in the years 1884, 1886, and 1890, if the
method were adopted of charging the principal
of new costly works to the revenue of the year
in which the enterprise was contracted. The
tax in 1890 by this method would exceed the
highest yearly tax ever collected in Tasmania
iby 148s. 8d. per head.

(2). The impossibility on the part of the Govern-
ment to construct new large costly works
necessary to the proper development of a new
country by such equitable yearly instalments
as would do justice to the taxpayers of each
year, if charged with principal instead of the
interest thereon.

(3). The utter impracticability, 1f not impossibility,
of any Government to devise fresh yearly
schemes of taxation, if the principal instead of
interest thereon were charged to the year in
which expenditure was to be contracted, owing
to the frequency of its extreme and eccentric
fluctuations.

We can more easily realise the force of these con-
clusions if we ask ourselves the questions—What would
happen if the directors of a large corporate body, such
as the London and North- Western Railway Company
of England, in the projection of a new branch of exten-
sion, proposed to the shareholders of the moment
(whose individuality is ever changing hour by hour, like
the taxpayers of a State) to charge the principal of cost
of construction and equipment to the existing share-
holder (individuals !), either by an abstraction from their
rightful profits from the earnings of the original
system’s working, or by mulcting them in a heavy out-
lay which, on purchasing stock of the company, was
never contemplated nor allowed for by them in the sell-
ing price? Why, the shareholder would regard it as a
barefaced robbery, and would at once depose the Board

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.0., F.S.S. 25,

of Directors who were mad enough to move such a pro-
posal. When, in the United Kingdom, persons are
found guilty of deceiving the shareholders and the in-
vesting public by secretly appropriating Capital, Loans,
Money for new works of original construction, to credit
of ordinary working revenue, and so doing a gross
wrong to the unsuspecting investors; or, on the other
hand, secretly charging working expenditure with the
principal of new costly works of construction, and so.
robbing the shareholder of the year, the acts of such
persons would be deemed by English law to be of the
nature of high misdemeanour, and there are instances
where guilty directors and guilty chief accountants of
Railways have received sentences of 16 years’ imprison-
ment for such an offence against law and justice.

26 STATE BORROWING.

PART 1IL—SINKING FUNDS FOR THE Anse]
LUTE REDEMPTION OF EXISTING AND
FUTURE STATE DEBTS.

Having already demonstrated that the Wealth of the
People of the Australian States since the introduction of
Loans has increased in a vastly greater ratio than either
Population or the present aggregate capital value of the
unredeemed State Debts; and also, that, owing to the
consequent increase of population and the growing
working profit of State Railways to State Treasury re-
venues, the burden of interest for State Debts of
£240,149,727 in the year 1906-7 only exceeds by 2d. per
head the corresponding interest burden for State Debts
in 1870, when the latter only amounted to £28,328,000,
it becomes an important matter to examine the ques-
tion, now so frequently proposed, as to the absolute
redemption of present and future debts by means of
yearly appropriation from current States revenue ac-
counts towards an absolute Redemption Sinking Fund
within a given term of years from the present date as
regards debts incurred in past years, and similar provi-
sion for freshly incurred debts from the date of their
contraction.

There are many suggestions recently advocated by
very able public men interested in the problems of
State Finance for such a purpose.

But the real question is: How far should the tax-
payer of the day burden himself, not only with his own
share of burdens of the State for which he in his own
time is responsible, but also with burdens incurred by a
former generation of taxpayers, with the view obviously
of giving a much lighter burden to future generations of
taxpayers, who (having the same or a fuller benefit of
the same Asset) by the natural increase of numbers,
would be financially more able to bear such absolute
weight of burden of interest on necessary State Debts
than the taxpayers of to-day.

The suggestions made by many of such advisers, in
promoting the idea of creating such Sinking Funds for
the Total Redemption of existing and future State

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I1.S.0O., F.S.S. 27

Debts, within the limits of periods of, say, 40 to 60
years, though eminently prudent and economic from
the standpoint of a private individual, may still be open
to question or qualification when applied to the
economics of a corporate body, such as a Railway, Joint
Stock Company or modern Industrial State.

The policy for determining the extent, form, and
duration of Public Loans, contracted for the purpose of
investment in any advantageous scheme of remunera-
tive or reproductive work or purpose, should differ
widely in some important respects, accordingly as it
affects the future outlook of the private individual, the

corporate body, or the Industrial State, for the follow-
ing reasons :—

The “ Life-expectation”’ of an individual person is
limited, and rapidly diminishes at every stage—say after
the age of 20 years. In like manner his natural powers,
physical’ and mental, gradually decline, especially so
towards the close of the average individual life.

The average Breadwinner of the State may be taken
as the Shareholder unit of the State, corresponding
somewhat to the individual as the Breadwinner of the
Family Circle. The average State Breadwinner’s life,
however, is practically interminable—never grows older
with years—and, in the aggregate, whose individuality
is ever changing in young prosperous States, the Bread-
winners or Taxpayers at the end of a century are
likely to possess fully five times the power and revenue-
yielding ability possessed by the aggregate Bread-
winners or Taxpayers of the same State at the begin-
ning of the century, so far as any fixed amount of debt
is concerned. Even if the present debt increased in
the ratio of population, the latter, from the greater
wealth producing asset, kept up to present value by
current revenue for renewals and repairs, without any
redemption of debts, would still be less burdened per
head than the State Taxpayers of to-day.

The important distinction between the Individual
Family Breadwinner and the corresponding unit—the
Taxpayer of the State—is perhaps best illustrated by
comparing the present capital value of £1 respectively
of the annual incomes of the private individual and the
State Taxpayer, as in the following abstract :—

(1).

(2).

STATE BORROWING.

An individual—say 20 years of age—possessing

a fixed income, assumed to be terminable at
death.

The average existing unit Taxpayer of the
State, who may be regarded not only as pos-
sessing a practically interminable income, but,
owing to the natural increase of the popula-
tion, his present capital value, instead of
diminishing, gradually increases from year to
year. In this way a given fixed burden, which
may at the beginning of a century in a State,
with a population of, say, 4,000,000, demand a
tax of 41s. 11d. per head, would only demand
for the same burden a tax of 7s. 8d. per head,
when the population then increased, probably,
to over 22,000,000—that is at the close of the
century.

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, I.S.O., F.S.S. 29

TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE PRE-
SINT CAIDA) WONILIOIE, Qu TERING 51, (ONE
DHE ANNUAL INCOME AT DIFFERENT
PERIOIDS O18 ACSIONGILIS, ILJUNe veINID) (Ole Isle,
AVERAGE ANNUAL INCOME OF A STATE
BREADWINNER RESPECTIVELY.

Column (A) indicates the year.

Column (B) indicates at each period the “ Expectation
of Life in Years of the Single Individual Life.”

Column (C) indicates the relative increase of State
; Breadwinners at each period owing to the natural
growth of population.

Column (D) indicates the Present Capital Value of
every f1 of the fixed annual Income of a Single
Individual terminable at death. The Individual is
assumed to be of the age of 20 years at the year
1906. The present Capital Value gradually shrinks
with the increasing age of the Individual.

Column (FE) indicates the Present Capital Value of every
£1 of the annual Income of the average Taxpayer
of a progressive State. The life of the State Tax-
payer may be regarded as practically interminable,
and the Present Capital Value at each successive
period increases in accordance with the natural in-
crease of the population.

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
No. No. £6 a
1906 42 10 it 21.83 27.66
1916 34.73 Ts 17/ 20.00 30.95
1926 27.39 1.39 17.28 36.74
1936 20,27 1.64 14.21 43.60
1946 13.81 1.95 10.92 51.76
1956 8.49 2.32 7.24 61.45
1966 4.66 2.75 4.23 72.95
1976 Boer iy 2.20 84.03
1986 0.75 3.88 0.75 102.80
1996 nil 4 60 nil 122.10

2006 nil 5 47 nil 145.40

30 STATE BORROWING.

From such considerations the writer is of opinion
that the State Taxpayers of the day stand, in relation
to ever-changing individuality of the State Taxpayers
of the past and the future, in exactly the same ethical
and economical relation as do the existing Shareholders
of a Private Railway Corporation to past and future
Shareholders of the same concern; and, consequently
(apart from the lack of any necessity to do so), there are
neither moral nor economical grounds why either State
Taxpayer or Shareholder of the day should, in addition
to their own equitable share of burden mulct them-
selves in additional expense as by Sinking Funds for
the purpose of relieving their future representatives of
a portion of their own fair and equitable share of bur-
dens. The latter, too, from increasing value of Loans,
Assets, increasing number and financial ability, should
be in a stronger position than their representatives of
to-day to fully discharge all reasonable obligation falling
naturally upon them.

In conclusion, I am strongly of opinion that Sinking
Funds for the absolute redemption of Loans invested
in Railways, Harbours, and other Public Works should
be restricted to the portions of such Loans whose
Assets are short-lived and, like the terminable life of
Marine Vessels, cannot be permanently preserved in
original. pristine value and utility by the proper yearly
contributions to Maintenance, Renewals, and Repairs
from current revenue, by which means the whole Per-
manent Way, Machinery, and Equipment of Railways
are ever kept up to their pristine value as State Assets.

NOTES ON THE RIVER GORDON. 31

NOTES ON THE, RIVER GORDON AND ON THE
NEED FOR RESERVATION OF LAND ALONG
LIS JANN),

By): Vib rAminne:.

(Read July 13, 1908.)

The River Gordon is about four miles distant from
Sarah Island. Its entrance is narrow, with a bar, upon
which there is a depth of water of about two fathoms,
deepening almost immediately to 10 fathoms.. The en-
trance to the river has now ‘been well beaconed, and
renders navigation safe. Approaching the Gordon, the
surrounding mountain scenery is very grand. Away to
the south the D’Aguilar Range and Mount Direction
stand rugged and picturesque, the next in importance
being the Elliott Range, its southern trend gently slop-
ing until lost in the billowing ranges which separate it
from the Li’ Aguilars, while its eastern extremity ends in
high, broken abruptness.

Following the Elliott Range eastward, we next
notice an elevated flat belt of open country, called the
High Plain. Across this plain came Sir John and Lady
Franklin and party, on their memorable overland
journey from Hobart in 1842, piloted by the late Mr.
James Erskine Calder, afterwards Surveyor-General of
Tasmania. They reached the Gordon about 10 miles
from its entrance, at a reach of the river called “ Pre-
servation Iulet.’ where the relief vessel the “ Breeze”
lay awaiting them. Following the High Plain are four
fine-sized mountain peaks, called by Lady Franklin
' Whe Grayerotts,; aiter relatives. @ne or other of the
Craycroft peaks shows nicely in some of the Gordon
scenery. Directly eastward from the Craycroft Range
the tops of the Engineer Range are just visible.

32 NOTES ON THE RIVER GORDON.

Entering tne river, its extensive shallows on either
side are broxen by rushes and driftwood, forming pleas-
ing foregrounds to the glorious panorama which
stretches from north-east to west. This is a scene to
be remembered, 1f, caught under favourable conditions—
a clear early morning and a dead calm. The great West
Coast Range, terminating here, shows Mounts Jukes,
Darwin, Sorell, and Strahan, grouped up in great gran-
‘deur, while farther westward the harbour is closed in
by Grummet and Sarah Islands, and the distant back-

ground of the wall-like ranges terminating at Table
Head.

The general scenery of the Gordon represents high
gorges, densely wooded to the water’s edge, with long
reaches and beautiful bends. There are stretches of open

ozntry in parts, but for 24 miles, until the River
Franklin is reached, it retains the character I have indi-
cated.

There is a fine outcrop of limestone at Limekiln
Reach, 12 miles from the river entrance, which in the
early days was quarried and burned by a party from the
Sarah Island establishment.

About two miles further along brings us to Butler’s
Island, a peculiar rock close to the eastern side of the
river. It received its name from the officers of the Sarah
Island establishment, Captain Butler, of the goth Regi-
ment, being one of its best and most energetic comman-
dants. The high rock to the west of the island IT named
Cuthbertsor’s Head, after Captain Cuthbertson, who
was the first commandant of Sarah Island, and who was
drowned at the entrance to the River Gordon.

Pining, as carried on in the Gordon and vicinity to-
day, is mostly confined to the creeks and small rivers
which flow into the main stream. All the pine timber
which grew so abundantly at one time along its banks,
and in th xe adjacent flats, has been worked out years ago,
and it will take a century at least for the young forest
trees to mature and be fit for use.

Among the surroundings of the higher waters of the
River Franklin, in the vicinity of the Frenchman Range,
where the country is excessively steep and rugged—
roads are quite out of the question, and the work of
pining is both ditficult and dangerous, most of the pine

BY J. W. BEATTIE. 33

being found on the top and sides of the precipitous hills.
When felling is completed the tree is trimmed and
barked, head cut off, and end pointed, ready for “ shoot-
ing.” Jacks of the Trewhella pattern are used to start
the tree down hill, when it “ shoots” into the river bed
below, and there awaits the winter floods to carry it
onward to the Gordon. The Franklin is navigable for
twenty miles from the Gordon for small boats, and in
that distance there are 150 rapids, some very high and
dangerous, and in surmounting them the boat has often
to be carried on shore round them before progress
further can be made. In view of the annually increasing
scarcity of suitable timber for the world’s requirements,
it would appear to be a matter deserving of great atten-
tion at tae mands of the Government to endeavour by
every means within its power, not only to conserve the
existing forests, but to take every step possible to in-
crease the supply of so valuable a timber, with possi-
bilities in tne future of considerable magnitude.

Gould’s Landing, a well-known Gordon landmark,
is 20 miles irom the river entrance, and about one mile
above Butier’s Island. The river is fairly open from
the island to the landing, which is situated on a river
flat, but to this point from its junction with the Franklin
the Gordon flows through fine gorges, and is very im-
pressive. Gould’s Landing may be said to mark the
limits of safe navigation for large craft, although the
river can be navigated as far as the first rapids, one and
a-half miles above the landing. Here is the first obstruc-
tion to the safe navigation of the Gordon. Two groups
of heavy rocks lie across the river, separated some little
distance from each other. They are known as the first
and second rapids. These once negotiated, the river
continues unobstructed to the junction of the Franklin,
about two miles distant. The River Franklin junctions
with the Gordon at 24 miles from Macquarie Harbour.
At its entrance is Pyramid Island. The Franklin takes
its rise from Lake Dixon, near Lake St. Clair, and from
its source to its junction with the Gordon waters is very
confined, rough, and dangerous. Floods in this river are
exceptionally severe, the water rising during the heaviest
floods as iugh as 60 feet above normal level, ordinary
floods reaching 30 feet. The flood waters develop a tre-

34 NOTES ON THE RIVER GORDON.

mendous velocity, racing to the Gordon at 20 miles an
hour.

Returning now to the Gordon. Above the Franklin
the Gordon is obstructed by numerous rapids. For 10
miles its course is through low country, about: fifty
rapids being met with in that distance. Following up
the river, dcep gorges are met with up to the Wilmot
Range, 25 miles from Gould’s Landing, and expert boat-
men are able to reach this point.

The source of the Gordon is in Lake Richmond,
under the shadow of the King William Range, whence
it flows tnrough picturesque surroundings in the
Rasselas Valley, making a long and graceful sweep
round Mount Wright, which is known as “ The Great
Bend.” From here its course is past the Thumbs Range
in deep ana rugged gorges to the eastern side of the
Wilmot Range, 20 miles distant, the last few miles being
through low button-grass country. From Lake Rich-
mond to tie Great Bend is about thirty miles, and the
total length of the river from its source to Macquarie
Harbour about 95 or 100 miles.

Floods on the Gordon occur in April generally, and
are usually heavy. There is a break of frosty weather,
in June particularly, then, from July to November, floods
are always prevalent. In heavy floods the river rises to
30 and 4o feet, and in ordinary floods to 20 feet. These
heights apply above Gould’s Landing, where the river is
narrowest. From the Landing to the mouth of the
river, the flood waters reach the theight of from 16 to
8 feet. Below Gould’s Landing the current attains a
speed of approximately 8 to 10 miles an hour, although
in the narrower parts the velocity is very much greater.
At the second rapids, for instance, where the river is
narrow, and has an acute bend, as the waters career
down they dash into the bank at this bend, producing a
scene of the wildest confusion.

Apart from the aesthetic side of the Gordon’s attrac-
tions, its scientific aspect, as contributing a unique dis-
play of our West Coast flora, must become apparent to
all, and should alone warrant beyond question its rigid
protection against axe and fire. It is necessary that
urgent measures be taken in bringing about this pro-
tectiozi, for already whispers of the erection of a saw-
mill are in the air, and this, if once established without

BY J. W. BEATTIE. 35

restrictive precautions, would undoubtedly mean the
“beginning of the end” to the beauty of the Gordon.
Surely we must see to it that such a menace should not
for one moment be allowed.

Some attempt at protection has, I believe, already
been made, the Government having reserved a strip of
land five chains wide on each sideé of the river, for a dis-
tance of 16 miles from the entrance at Macquarie Har-
bour. This is totally inadequate to fully protect the
river from the depredations of the timber hunter. The
area must be greatly extended, and my proposition is
that all the hillsides immediately fronting the river
should be reserved, allowing five or ten chains on the
flat parts of the river, reservation to commence from the
Macquarie Harbour entrance, and end at one mile be-
yond the Franklin River Junction, which would give a
total length of 25 miles, and would effectually protect
the whole of the beautiful scenery of the river. This re-
servation cannot interfere with the pine industry, no
pine being available now on the banks of the river, nor
would timber-getters suffer inconvenience, as_ their
sphere of labour would lie outside the reserve.

The economic value of this reserve to the state, apart
from aesthetic or scientific considerations, may be re-
garded as practically “ nil,” the land being worthless for
setlement or agriculture, and no minerals have, I be-
lieve, been discovered within the proposed area of pro-
tection, so that, under such circumstances, the Govern-
ment lose nothing by its reservation, but, on the con-
trary, would gain, now and in future years, the approba-
tion and esteem of all right-thinking people of this state.

The preservation of scenery in other parts of the
vorld is receiving the greatest attention, and even in
England a society has been formed for the preservation
of Swiss scenery. How much greater is the necessity
existent in a country like Tasmania, relying so much
upon her tourist traffic, to preserve by every means
within ‘her power attractions without which such a traffic
would diminish rather than increase, to the serious loss
of the state. One hesitates to put this selfish aspect of
the case betore a learned society, but “ necessity knows
no law,” and, after all, a public awakening may be better
arcused by a proposition in this form rather than from
a more scientific standpoint.

36 _ A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND.

A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND ON CHARLTON
ESAT NEAR: ROSSam¢e ke AE oe):

By Riaz VNOELLING es VieApeaneh. De. ERC.
(Read August Ioth, 1908.)

The customs observed by the Aborigines in dispos-
ing of their dead relatives and friends have been most
carefully described in Ling Roth’s book on the
Aborigines of Tasmania (1). But in perusing this com-
pilation anyone must be struck by the rather conflicting
accounts given by different observers.

The earliest, and probably the most trustworthy de-
scription of a native grave is given by Peron (2). The
corpse was burnt, the ashes covered with a layer of
grass arranged in connective rings, forming a low cone,
and this was hheld in position by small wooden wands
crossing one another at the top of the cone, their ends
being pushed in the ground and held in position by a
large flat pebble. Above this was erected a curious
tetragonal pyramid of wooden poles, covered with bark
and tied together at the top. This structure covered a
quantity of ashes, and Peron is most explicit to explain
how he extracted the bones from this grave.-

Peron’s description is accompanied by a sketch,
copied in Ling Roth’s book in which three graves are
seen—a complete one, another opened in front, and a
third one showing only the central cone without the
outer pyramid of bark.

As Peron states that “ the monument,” as he calls it,
was the only one found by him, it is obvious that the
sketch is not an exact representation of what he has
observed, but rather a reconstruction based on actually
observed facts.

Peron’s description is rather emotional, attributing
to the Aborigines feelings that he, the sentimental
Frenchman of the 18th century, may have had, but

(1) Ling Roth, The Aborigines of Tasmania, 2nd ed., Hali-
fax (England), 1899, pp. 116-122.

(2) Peron and Freycinet, Voyage de Decouvertes aux Terres
Australis, Paris, 1807-1816.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 37

which it is safe to say were hardly those of the
Aborigines of Tasmania. This touch of sentiment rather
mars his otherwise clear description, and he has on ac-
count of this probably overlooked certain facts which
would be of the greatest importance to us were they
recorded.

The account given by A. Cottrell (1) refers rather to
the customs observed than to the grave itself. Accord-
ing to him the corpse was burnt, and the relatives,
having collected the ashes, besmeared their faces with
it, and tied the remainder up in a piece of kangaroo
skin, which they wore about their person. According
to West, the skull of an infant was taken up from the
ashes, wrapped up in a piece of kangaroo skin, and
worn by a female, probably the mother. There cannot
be the slightest doubt that fragments of human bones,
tied up in a bit of skin, were highly prized as amulets
or charms by the Aborigines. However interesting
that may be, it dots not bear on the question at issue,
viz., the disposal of the dead bodies.

It is certain that the Aborigines burnt their dead,
but there is a considerable difference as to the disposal
of the ashes. If the practice referred to by Backhouse,
Cottrell, and West had been extensive, there would
have been hardly any ashes left. On the other hand,
Peron’s statement is so explicit that it is safe to assume
that always a considerable quantity was left, which was
eventually covered in the way described by Peron. It
is therefore very probable that it was customary to burn
the dead, and some of the remains were worn as charms
or amulets by the relatives, who probably besmeared
their faces also with the ashes (3).

(3) I quote from Ling Roth. It seems that a good deal of
‘G. W. Walker’s statements are based on information given to
him by A. Cottrell.

(4) This fact throws a curious sidelight on a custom referred
to by the Bible—extreme grief was expressed by going in sack-
cloth and ashes. It is natural to ask, why ashes? If we assume
that this custom, used by later generations without knowing its
real meaning, was based on the custom of early mankind to
besmear their faces with the ashes of a deceased relative, we
have probably the true explanation of anotherwise strange
custom. Tio besmear the face with the ashes of the deceased
expressed the greatest grief for its loss, and after mankind be-
came more civilised they no longer used the deceased’s ashes,
‘but simply put any kind of ashes on the head.

38 ‘ A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND

Some writers also refer to the custom of placing a
dead body in an upright position in a hollow tree. As
far as I can see this was only done in cases of emer-
gency, when there was no time to burn the body at
once; but they were certainly subsequently burnt.

And now a very curious question arises: Did the
Aborigines dispose of their deceased on the spot where
death took place, or did they carry them to certain
places habitually used for the purpose of cremation? It
is pretty safe to assume that death mostly took place
on the camping ground; some may ‘have died while
travelling, while others may have been killed at odd
places in their internecine wars.

It is very strange to find that not a single one of all
observers noticed whether the Aborigines had regular
burial grounds or not. The only reference I can find is
3raim (4), who states: “ Whenever they approached
places where any of their countrymen had been de-
posited, they would on all future occasions avoid com-
ing near such spots, and would rather go miles round
than pass close to them.” The same authority states
that “ other tribes, again, when it was not convenient to
carry off the dead body to some place of interment
would put it into some hollow tree.”

These two statements would imply (a) that there was
a regular burial ground, (b) that the dead body was
carried to it. Now, we know that the names of the de-
ceased were never mentioned again by their relatives—
in fact, thy seem to have had a superstitious fear of the
spirits of their departed, and from this fact alone we
may conclude that the dead were not indiscriminately
buried. It is hardly probable that if anyone died at a
regular camping ground they disposed of the dead body
then and there in the way described by Peron and
others. It is more probable that there existed certain
areas, well known and to be avoided, where the remains.
of the dead were deposited. The question, however, is,
Do such burial grounds exist? As already stated, no
author but Braim mentions a burial ground; but if they

(1) Braim, Thos. H., History of New South Wales from its
settlement to the year 1844, II., p. 267, London, 1846. (I quote
from Ling Roth, p. 62.)

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 39

exist, the traces left behind must be very fragmentary.
It is evident that the wooden superstructure described
by Peron cannot have stood for any length of time. It
is equally certain that the grass covering soon rotted
away; in fact, the second grave mentioned by Peron
seems to have been in this dilapidated condition, and
the first one, so minutely described, must have been of
very recent origin. We can safely assume that after a
few years nothing remained of the rather elaborate
structure but a low earthy mound, in which a few stones
were embedded, and even these relics were very perish-
able. We can only regret that Peron, led away by his
emotions, did not make a closer examination of the two
localities where he discovered the graves; if he had, the
question whether the Aborigines used regular burial
grounds or not would have been settled. Had he seen
such little mounds of earth covered with a few stones,
there could ‘have been no further doubt that this place
had been used as a regular burial ground.

A. discovery which I lately made on Charlton estate,
near Ross, seems to settle this question in favour of the
existence of a regular burial ground. Mr. EK. Cameron,
of Mona Vale, informed me that a so-called native burial
ground existed quite close to Charlton house. Following
the fence behind the house in an eastern direction for
about hali-a-mile, we came on a most remarkable spot.
The ‘hill is apparently covered with sand, and right on
the top the sand has been blown out for a length of
about three hundred feet to a depth of over four feet.
The remains of the covering layer of sand can still be
seen towards north, and they are well marked in the
photograph. The hill commands a fine view all round,
and the photograph gives only a poor impression of the
large area that can be overlooked.

On the loamy soil, about seventy to eighty little
mounds of earth, irregularly covered with more or less
rounded stones, can be seen. These mounds are about
three feet in diameter, and very low; in fact, most of
them are hardly raised above the ground. I opened
several of them, but, except an irregular layer of whitish
tenacious clay, covered by the ordinary reddish loam,
I found nothing. There were not the slightest traces of
bones. Fragments of stone implements were not un-

40 A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND.

common, lying scattered about among the bigger
stones.

Though no bones were found, I have not the
slightest doubt that this place has been used as a re-
gular burial ground by the Aborigines. There is no
agency to which we could attribute the heaping up of
a number of little mounds of earth in which large stones
are embedded but to human beings. | It is not very
probable that these mounds represented fireplaces ; 1f so,
why should the whitish clay be invariably covered
under a layer of red loam, in which rather heavy stones
are embedded? The only way to account for these little
mounds is to assume that they are graves of Aborigines,
and, if this be so, they must be of great age. There is
no doubt that these graves were some time ago covered
by a deposit of blown sand, measuring not less than
four feet in thickness, and in that way perfectly con-
cealed. They became only exposed iter the sand,
stead of being deposited, was again blown away. Both
the covering and the blowing out must have taken some
time, and we know nothing about the length of the in-
terval between, which may have amounted to a consider-
able number of years. It is therefore hardly surprising
that no bones were found. The larger fragments had
been taken away by the relatives; the smaller frag-
ments, already much calcined by the fire, soon disinte-
grated into dust, and in coure of time the ashes turned
into a whitish clay.

The numbers of mounds exposed proves that this
place was regularly used for the disposal of dead bodies,
and this proves Braim’s statement as to the existence
of regular burial grounds to be correct.

We may assume that not too far from the regular
camping grounds a spot commanding a good view was
selected for depositing the remains of the dead, but it
still remains an open question whether they carried the
corpses to such places in order to burn them there, or
whether they cremated on the place of death, and car-
ried the ashes to the regular burial ground, where they
were interred in the manner described by Peron.

Braim’s statement, above referred to, seems to indi-
cate that the bodies were carried to the burial ground;

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH-D., ETC. AI

but I feel inclined to think that this view is not correct.
We know that the Aborigines shirked all kind of
labour, and carrying a corpse, perhaps for some miles
to the nearest burial place, would mean a good deal of
hard work. Further, if this had been so, it would hhave
been surprising that no such procession had ever been
seen or witnessed by a European. We might perhaps
assume that this was done during the night, but all ac-
counts agree that the Aborigines had a great dislike
for travelling at night, and this, coupled with their dread
of the deceased, makes such an assumption very im-
probable.

If we consider all the evidence that has been handed
over to us, together with the evidence which the Charl-
ton burial ground affords, we can form the following
view as to the disposal of dead bodies.

Wien a death occurred, a pile was erected, and the
body cremated on the spot. Probably while the burning
was going on the relatives who attended to it used to
smear their faces with some of the ashes, and, after the
burning had been completed, the fragments of the
larger bones were used as amulets or charms, wrapped
up in a piece of kangaroo skin, and worn by the rela-
tives or friends. The remainder of the ashes were
scraped together, and carried, in a kangaroo skin (?) or
a basket (?7)—to the nearest burial ground, where they
were deposited in a shallow hole scraped in the ground
by means of a sharp stone (?). After being covered
with a little earth, the grass cone and bark pyramid
described by Peron were erected, and the place here-
after avoided as much as possible.

It would be very interesting to know whether
similar burial places exist elsewhere in Tasmania. Mrs.
Burbury, of Charlton, informs me that a similar, though
much more extended place, exists near Fonthill, and
Mr. Henry Foster, jun., has told me that another one
is found on Darlington Park. As I have not seen either
of these places, it is impossible for me to venture an
opinion about them, but, to judge from the description
given to me, they must exactly look like the Charlton
burial ground. If this be so, the fact that the Aborigines
had certain places set aside for the regular disposal of
their dead bodies is beyond further doubt. The only

42 A NATIVE BURIAL GROUND.

question which has not quite been settled yet would be
whether the dead would ‘have been carried bodily to the
burial ground, or only their ashes. From all we know
about the habits of the Aborigines, the latter view is
more probably the correct one.

It may appear that I have gone at some length in
discussing a rather trifling question. The conclusions
we may, however, draw from this as to earlier history of
mankind are of the greatest importance. We may con-
clude that early man disposed of the dead bodies by
cremation, and that the custom of burying the corpse is
of much later date. It is therefore not to be wondered
at that the remains of diluvial and pre-diluvial human
beings are so extremely rare. If archaeolithic man died,
his relatives disposed of his body by cremation, and only
under such fortunate circumstances, when it was impos-
sible to get hold of the corpse, which was also protected
against ‘animals, was there a chance that the remains
would be preserved. The few remains of diluvial man,
the famous Spy-Cro-Magnon race, have been found
under circumstances which indicate that these former
owners must have come to a rather sudden end while
sitting in front of their cave, by being killed and covered
by a sudden fall of rocks from above. If diluvial and
tertiary man disposed of his dead bodies in a similar
way as the Aborigines, and there is no reason to assume
a different view, the old burial grounds must have long
become entirely obliterated, and the same fate is certain
to happen to the Tasmanian burial grounds before long.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 43

Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1908. Phe Wo

Dr. Noetling, Photo.

NATIVE BURIAY, GROUND, Charlton.

THE NATIVE QUARRY AT SYNDAL. 44

THE NATIVE OUARIR VEO TS Y NIDA TE ING AN
IROSS e (G2iL. IUD, AINID ID.)).

Byohinima NOEL EING HE ise. Hal): EanGe

(Read August roth, 1908.)

In the monthly notices of this Society for June, July,
and August, 1875, page 41, the late Mr. J. R. Scott de-
scribes the locality of a “ native quarry ” as follows :—

“Tt has long been desirable to fix upon a spot where
the Aborigines obtained their flint or stone implements.
I am now able to fix upon two places, viz. :—First, about
10 chains immediately in front and to the north-east of
the stone hut in Stocker’s Bottom, County of Somerset,
Parish of Pell. The second is about one mile more to
the south-west, on Lot 443, on a branch of Dismal 'Creek
running out of Stocker’s Bottom. ‘These two places
are about six miles distant from the Macquarie River.”

I think the wording can only be interpreted in one
way, viz., that the Aborigines obtained the rock which
they used in the manufacture of their stone implements
from two localities, about six miles from the Macquarie
River, at a place called Stocker’s Bottom. In other
words, that there exists what. is commonly called a
WNative @uarty, ~ at Stockerembottom- sit isiinennts
meaning that Stocker’s Bottom has been quoted in
Johnston’s Geology of Tasmania and Ling Roth’s
Aborigines of Tasmania.

When visiting Mt. Morriston, in June, 1908, I was
anxious to see this locality, but Mr. Bennett, of Mt.
Morriston, informed me that the story of the native
quarry at Stocker’s Bottom was a myth. However, I
thought it better to convince myself whether there is
any truth in Scott’s statement or not, and accordingly
I set out, in company with Mr. Vere Poullet-Harris, and

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 45

under the guidance of a man who.knew Stocker’s
Bottom well, who had kindly been placed at my disposal
by Mr. Eustace Cameron, of Mona Vale, to hunt up the
native quarry at Stocker’s Bottom. It was a long and
tedious ride; but we found the stone hut right enough.
“Ten chains immediately in front and to the north-
east’ we went, but there was not a sign of an outcrop
of chert or any suitable rock, not to say of a native
quarry. There was only black alluvial soil. We went
further—z2o, 30 chains, half-a-mile—no sign of a quarry.

We went in a wide circle round the hut; nowhere the

slightest indication of even a small fragment of chert or
a native implement. This careful examination of the
locality which Mr. Vere Poullet-Harris and myself
made, with the assistance of a man who knew almost
-every inch of ground, has conclusively proved that the
native quarry near the stone hut in Stocker’s Bottom
is a myth. We then set out to hunt for the second
locality, but, except a few pieces of dark chert on the
slope of a low hill, I found nothing, and it seems pretty
certain that there is no quarry at the place described by
SCOtt:

It then struck me that another interpretation might
be given to Scott's statement. Can it be that he dis-
covered some outcrops of chert, and that he only wanted
to say that he discovered two localities where rock suit-
able for the manufacture of Aboriginal implements oc-
curs, leaving it an open question whether the Aborigines
did exploit that locality or not? This view would in some
way account for this otherwise inexplicable statement.
However that may be, it is certain that there exists no
native quarry in Stocker’s Bottom, and this locality
must therefore be struck off the list of places whence
the Aborigines obtained the material for the manufac-
ture of their implements.

Though disappointed in Stocker’s Bottom, I had the
good luck to hear of another native quarry which had
been discovered by Mr. George Hutchison, of Beaufront,
on Syndal Estate. Mr. Hutchison kindly showed me
the place, and I feel greatly indebted to him, because
it is doubtful whether I would have found this rather
remote locality without his guidance. We proceeded
from the road that leads from Ross to Trefusis in
an eastern direction along the wire-netted boundary

46 THE NATIVE QUARRY OF SYNDAL.

fence between Syndal and Charlton Estate, till a hut
near an artificial lagoon, which is somewhat north of the
boundary fence, was reached. Passing it, we eventually
reached a wire-netted cross fence running north and
south, and, passing through the‘hurdle gate, we turned
towards right (south), and, following the cross fence for
about a quarter of a mile, we came on the slope of a low
hill right on to the quarry. The run where it occurs is
known as the “ Front Shelves Run.”

At first it did not seem very extensive; but further
examination showed that it extendéd for at least half-
a-mile in.an eastern direction. The sight is really a re-
markable one, and the photographs give only a very
poor idea of it. ‘Hundreds of thousands of fragments of
rock are lying about, sometimes in large heaps, some-
times more scattered. No better comparison could be
made than with a road recently covered with fresh
broken metal, and every one of the fragments we see
has once passed through human hands.

Unfortunately, the bush is rather dense, and this
made a closer geological examination impossible. A
short distance towards south-east there are sandstone
cliffs, in which now and then a little cave has been hol-
lowed out. The relationship of the. chert which was
used for implements and the sandstone is not quite
clear; neither did I see any volcanic rock close to the
outcrop of the chert.. As far as can be maile out, the
chert forms a band of about 120 feet in width and half-
a-mile in length, striking almost due east-west. Perhaps
a closer examination will reveal more with regard to
the geological features. For the present it is impossible
to say anything more in particular with regard to the
origin of the chert, whether it is metamorphosed or an
original sedimentary rock. The extremely fine bedding
would almost suggest that it is a true siliceous shale.

At the western part the chert is of dark blue colour,
and of very fine grain; it is very evenly striated, and
darker and lighter-coloured bands are _ irregularly
alternating. At the eastern end, however, a chert of
light greyish colour occurs. It would be interesting to
see the passage of the dark blue into the grey chert;
but I am afraid this is impossible without a good deal of
digging and blasting. However, this occurrence proves

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. AT

that there is no fundamental difference between the
dark blue and the grey chert. It seems that this chert
breaks up into irregular lumps of varying size, which
are covered with brownish crust. . These lumps have
been broken by the Aborigines into irregular angular
fragments, most of which were rejected; but. suitable
pieces were worked then and there into implements,
while others were apparently taken to the camping
grounds. All the specimens that have been handled by
the Aborigines are covered with a whitish patina, which
sometimes, particularly at the angles, wears off, disclos-
ing the dark black colour of the rock.

It is very remarkable that only a small number of
implements were found that show a _ considerable
amount of chipping. Though there is an enormous
number of angular fragments, I think that hardly one
in a thousand is extensively worked. And there is
another notable fact, all the specimens, which show
either a well-worked indical face or careful trimming of
the edges, invariably show a nice smooth pollical face.
I already dwelt on this peculiar fact in my description
of the Native Quarry on Coal Hill (Melton-Mowbray),
and I can only account for this in one way. The quar-
ries were not working places—they were quarries pure
and simple—that is to say, places from which the stone
used for implements was obtained. The Aborigines
visited these places simply to obtain a supply of suitable
flakes, most of which they took away in order to shape
them at their camping grounds. Had they made their
implements at the quarry, we might certainly expect a
large number of unfinished rejects or broken specimens.

Another fact struck me also as very remarkable,
and I may say that this equally applies to the Coal Hill
Quarry. In my search for well worked specimens, I
naturally turned over and examined a large number of
fragments, and numerous of these seemed by size,
shape, and sharp edges conveniently suitable for a cut-
ting implement; yet they were apparently rejected. On
the other hand, specimens which are well worked and
trimmed appear to be much less suitable than the re-
jected fragments.

48 THE NATIVE QUARRY OF SYNDAL.

I already noticed, at the June meeting of this Society,
a similar fact when describing the nucleus and the flakes
struck therefrom; flakes that were very suitable were
disregarded, and at last one, which does not appear to
have more advantages than the others, was obtained,
and further work was stopped. One can only wonder
at the enormous waste of labour, and, as all the
lower races are notoriously lazy, it is astonishing to
note that they must have spent a vast amount of their
_ labour in vain. It is very difficult to give a satisfactory
explanation of this unquestionable fact; 1 can only sup-
pose that every time when an Aborigine required an
implement he wished it to be of a certain size. He
commenced striking off flakes till one of the desired
size was obtained, disregarding all the others that fell
off, however suitable they might otherwise have been,
because they did not have the size, or perhaps better
said, the required weight. It cannot be the shape, be-
cause all Tasmanian implements are true amorpho-
lithes—that is to say, devoid of all intentional form. It
can therefore only be the size or the weight of the de-
‘sired flake that came into consideration. If this view
be correct, it would certainly account in a satisfactory
way for the otherwise puzzling fact that numerous
flakes which are evidently suitable for implements have
been rejected, while others less suitable have been
worked into implements.

At present a fairly thick bush grows all over the
quarry, and the traces of a great bush fire are still
visible. These bush fires had a remarkable result on
some of the fragments; a large number are superficially
cracked; as a further result, irregular splinters break off,
and the originally smooth surface assumes a rough,
jagged appearance. I have a most striking example of
this action of the fire in a well-chipped specimen, from
which a number of splinters have already been detached,
while others are ready to break off at the slightest shock.
It is obvious that if this specimen had been exposed for
a longer time to the action of fire and rain, the originally
well-chipped archaeolithe would have changed into an
angular fragment, devoid of any signs of working, but
perhaps showing still the cracks ~-oduced by fire.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 49

In conclusion, it is advisable to give a revised list of
the native quarries known up to date (2). These are—

1. A quarry on Coal Hill (4), near Melton-Mowbray
(Johnstone’s Quarry)—(Noetling, The Native Quarry
on Coal Hill, near Melton-Mowbray, The Tasmanian
Neniirallise, 1607, WOR IS Ne, 2, pon ueio), (Cnere
quarry.

2. Small quarry near the railway station of Pontville.
Porcellanite-quarry. (Weston’s Quarry.)

3. Quarry on Front-shelves run, Syndal Estate, near
Ross. Chert-quarry. (Hutchison’s Quarry.)

4. Quarry on the boundary line between Glenleith
and Charles Hope Estates, River Plenty, about 2 miles
from Plenty railway station. Chert-quarry. Walker’s
Quarry.) (H. Ling Roth, The Aborigines of Tasmania,
2nd edition, 1899, p. 149.)

5. Quarry in the neighbourhood of the Great Lake,
between Split Rock and the western shore of the Great
Lake, according to the late Mr. Scott. This place is
quoted in Johnson’s Geology and in Ling Roth’s
Aborigines of Tasmania. Mr. Harold Bisdee has also
mentioned to me that a quarry exists near the Great
Lake, but whether this is the same locality as that men-
tioned by Scott I am unable to say.

6. It is certain that the Aborigines used the Breccia,
which occurs in large, loose boulders on the beach of
Droughty Point for their implements, though there is
no regular quarry. The numerous implements picked up

(1) Only a few days ago Mr. R. V. Nicholls, of Melton-
Mowbray, kindly informed me that he had found another
quarry, about four miles to the west of the railway station. I
have just seen this locality, and I can fully confirm Mr.
Nicholls’ discovery. The quarry is the largest and most ex-
tended I have hitherto seen, and I will describe it in a subse-
quent paper. I may only mention here that it is a chert-
quarry, in which the treasured kind of grey chert was obtained.
As there are now two quarries near Melton-Mowbray, and as
the locality where this quarry is situated has no particular
name, I propose to call it Nicholls’ quarry, in honour of its
discoverer, in order to distinguish it from the quarry on Coal
Hill, which I now distinguish under the name of Johnstone's
quarry. :

(2) The number of quarries having increased, I think it ad-
visable to distinguish each by a special name. Geographical
names not being always suitable, I think it will be best to name
the quarry after its discoverer.

50 THE NATIVE QUARRY OF SYNDAL.

on Droughty Point are, however, of the same kind of
rock as occurs on the beach.

7. A quarry is said to exist on the road from Camp-
bell Town to Swansea, near Lake Leak. As I have not
visited this place, I am unable to say whether this is
correct or not.

8. Hunter’s Hill, Native Point, on the South Esk,
near Perth. The name implies that it must have been
a favourite resort of the natives. If 1 am right, Mr.
Johnston has first discovered this place, but it does not
appear to have been a regular quarry.

9. Pipe Clay Lagoon, South Arm (Johnston, Geclony
of Tasmania). Though there is no doubt as to the oc-
currence of metamorphosed rock, I do not think there
exists a regular quarry.

to. On the Tamar River (Johnston, Geology of Tas-
mania). Nothing is known to me about this locality.

t. Mount Communication, Saltwater River, Tas-
man’s Peninsula (2). (Clark’s Quarry.)

Out of this number we may take it that Nos. 1-5 and
tr are regular quarries—that is to say, localities fre-
quented by the Aborigines, perhaps for a long space of
time, in order to obtain suitable fragments of rock to:
be shaped into implements.

The locality near Droughty Point is not a regular
quarry in the meaning of those above mentioned; it is
very probable that Nos. 8, 9, 10 come under the same
heading, though, not having seen these localities myself,
I do not wish to express an opinion.

No. 7, the quarry near Lake Leak, will have to be
included in the list of regular quarries, provided that the
information is correct. I therefore leave it as doubtful
for the present, but I hope that later on I shall be able
to give more information about it. There are therefore
up to date (November, 1g08) seven places known in Tas-
mania which have been habitually frequented by the
Aborigines in order to obtain the material for their
stone implements.

(2) Since the above was written I have been able to
examine this quarry, which is situated in a very remote place.
Mr. George Clark kindly showed me the place, and I am
greatly indebted to him for guiding me. I will describe this
quarry, together with Nicholls’ quarry, but I may mention here
that it is of the chert type.

5Dioy JING:

Sp) SPURL

M.A

NOETLING

FRITZ

PL. III.

1908.

Roy. Soc. Tasm

‘jepuds ‘AUUVNOO HAILVN

‘OJOY ‘SUIMJIONT *

THE NATIVE QUARRY OF SYNDAL.

Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1908.

‘jepuds ‘AMUVNO AALLVN

*0J0Yq FU 30

MG “AT

ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN: FAUNA. 53

‘ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN
FAUNA. (PL. VI.).

By W. L. May.
(Read 14th September, 1908.)

Since the publication of Tate and May’s Revised
Census, in 1901, a considerable number of species new
to the Tasmanian molluscan fauna have become known
to me, and I| think it is well to place the names on re-
cord. I also offer observations on several species, and
take the opportunity to describe and figure what appear
to be three species new to science. This paper does not
in any way refer to the large mass of new material lately
dredged off Cape Pillar by C. Hedley and myselt.

List of new records, with habitat and remarks :—

FASCINUS TYPICUS (Hedley)—One juvenile ex-
ample taken on the beach at Pirate Bay, and identi-
fied by the autlor, Coll. W. L. M.

MARGINELLA ANGASI (Brazier).—This has long
been known to local collectors, but has been con-
fused with M. simsoni (Tate and May). If I have
rightly identified the species, then M. halli (Prit.
and Gat.) is a synonym.

TEREBRA INCONSPICUA (Prit. and Gatliff)—One
specimen. Storm Bay, 23 fathoms.

CLATHURELLA BICOLOR (Angas).—Not uncom-
mon in Frederick Henry Bay.

TARANIS EDWINI (Brazier), Clathurella—One
specimen. Very similar to T. minuta (T. W.) in
general appearance, but distinguished by its punc-
tate pullus, which in minuta is spirally lirate.
Daphnella mimica (Sowb.) is a synonym of the
latter.

54 ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN FAUNA.

DAPHNELLA CASSANDRA (Hedley).—Derwent
Estuary. Many specimens.

MITROMORPEA PAINE (Hedley) i) Storia
Bay.—Fred. Henry Bay. Rare.

NATICA SHOREHAMI (Prit. and Gatliff), Storm
Bay, 24 fathoms.—One example.

SCALA VALIDA (Verco).—One living example, off
Pilot Station, Derwent. Several fragmentary, from
Fred. Henry Bay, in shell sand. :

CINGULINA, DIA PEVAINAS (Verco).—_ Three sitex=
amples. Various southern localities, in dredgings.

LITORINA PRAETERMISSA (May).—N. S.
RISELLOPSIS MUTA'BILIS (May).—N. Ss.

CYCLOSTREMA BASDOWI (Gatliff)—One ex-
ample, Fred. Henry Bay, which seems a slight
variety of this species.

SCISSURELEA ROSEA) WGiledley) —Pred:) lenty,
Bay. Several examples.

SCISSURELLA ORNATA (May)—N. S.

GADINEA ANGASIT (Dall).—East and North Coasts.
Rare.

GARI KENYONIANA (Prit. and Gatliff), Tellina—
Two valves, on beach at Adventure Bay. Coll. W.
IE. als

CIRCE ANGASI (Smith)—Several valves. Storm
Bay, 24 fathoms.

CUNA CONCENTRICA (Hedley)—sStorm Bay, 24
iathoms. Ore vaive.

CONDYMOCARDIA (PROPRIA (iHedlev)-——tied:
Henry Bay. One valve.

CONDYLOCARDIA CRASSICOSTA (Bernard), Fig:
6.—This species was described from New Zealand,
and is an interesting addition to our hist. Under
the belief that it was new, a figure was prej-ared by
Miss West, which is here inserted for the benent of
Australian students. A few specimens taken in
Frederick Henry Bay.

BY W. L. MAY. : 55:

PHILIPPIELLA RUBRA (Hedley) —Mar v localities.

in the south.

MYTILUS CANALICULUS (Martyn), Universal Con-
Enologist. mos Pl) 73. yeatus )¢Chem)s. nen
iLemagirdk. agmanbennens, WemisomwWoods, | Anis
novel synonymy is the result of a careful exami-
nation of our larger Mytilus, showing that the
very large form named Tasmanicus, by Woods,.
is not conspecific with M. planulatus (Lamarck),
but is identical with the New Zealand species
M. canaliculus, which is distinguished—besides
some difference in outline—by strong teeth in the
hinge Pattie apex “Or the Swell andi iywliteh) sare
quite wanting in M. planulatus. The habitat is
peculiar, it being nearly always found in deep water,
and is occasionally obtained by scallop dredgers in
the Derwent. I once saw two specimens attache.
to a tidal rock, Fred. Henry Bay, and also possess
a fine example taken on the beach at Marion Bay,
East Coast.

AURICULA DYERIANA (Tenison-Woods).—I now
possess one of the type lot of the above species.
In Tate and May it is made a synonym of Cassidula
zonata (H. and A. Adams), but from a study of C.
PMedlevissicuneror thar speciesainm le le) SOCe New:
SOM Wales, MOCK, 1D. Heyy, Ill, XOXCIMUL lero) Zo,
and also from Port Jackson specimens I now have,
I find they are quite distinct, 1 also find that
A. dyeriana is an absolute synonym of Cassidula
nucleus (Mart). As this is a tropical species, it is
very unlikely to occur here, and Mr. Dyer told me
that after taking the type lot he could never find it
again, although he searched very carefully. I
therefore consider it to have been an accidental in-
troduction, and that the name should be expunged
from our list—Sandford, July, 1908.

In the Records of Australian Museum, Vol. 1V., No.
7, 25th August, 1902, H. L. Kesteven erected a new
genus, Risellopsis, for Hutton’s Fossarina varia. I now
describe a second species, which is quite distinct from
Hutton’s, whilst still fulfilling the conditions necessary
to place it in the genus.

56 ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN FAUNA.

RISELLOPSIS MUTABILIS (May), Figs. 1 and 2—
Shell depressed of three whorls, rapidly increasing,
umbilicate; aperture large, descending in front,
angular above; suture somewhat canaliculate. Two
prominent keels divide the shell into a superior, a
peripheral, and basal area. The lower keel is con-
siderably the stronger. There is a low ridge on
the base of the shell, and beyond it a small, sharp
keel, exactly defining the umbilical area, which
latter is whitish, whilst the rest of the shell is a dull
purplish black. Lip sharp and simple, somewhat
angled by the persistence of the peripheral keels,
which, however, have become nearly obsolete.
Columella arched, and slightly expanded over the
umbilicus, which is ample and perspective. Shell
almost smooth (often corroded), but very finely
striated by lines of growth. Height, 2%; greatest
diameter, 34% mill. Habitat—-Most of my speci-
mens, including the type, are from Fred. Henry
Bay, Tasmania. It occurs in Victoria also (C.
Gabriel ieee Baker):

Individuals may vary, by the keels—especially the
upper one—becoming almost obsolete, giving the
whorls a more rounded appearance. One example is
highly turretted, giving it a trochiform appearance.
Another has the last whorl partly detached. The colour
may also become reddish, mottled with white, or there
may be yellowish patches on a black ground. From the
New Zealand species (R. varia), it differs in being less
round and without the keels on the base and upper part
of the whorl, and in wanting the coarse striation. Type
to be placed in the Tasmanian Museum, Figs. 1 and 2.

The following note on the Genus Litorina was com-
municated by niy friend, Charles Hedley, of the Austra-
lian Museum, Sydney, whom I also have to thank for
kind assistance in the preparation of this paper.

“LITORINA (Menke), 1828, non Littorina Ferussac
1822), nomen nudum. Ferussac (Tabl. Syst. des
Anim. Moll., 1822, p. xxxiv.), casually wrote Litto-

NOTE.—This species was wrongly figured in Tate and
May's Census, Pl. xxiii., fig. 9, as Fossarina Funiculata Teni-
son-Woods. ;

BY W..L. MAY. 57

rina among a long list of genera without giving a
type definition or other means of identification; his
name must therefore be discarded as a nomen
nudum. Then Menke (Syn. Meth. Moll., 1828) in-
troduced Litorina with a classified list of species,
their synonyms, and references to literature. It is
on Menke’s work that the genus is based. I have
not access to his first edition, but in the second
edition (1830) the genus is given on p. 44.”

[PRO MENA ReE RIMESS AN (lay) IN Se Bic. 3:
—Shell globosely turbinate, umbilicate; whorls, six
rounded, rapidly increasing, the last very large;
mouth pyriform, columella arched, flattened, and
expanded over a narrow but deep umbilicus, which
is frequently covered, and so not a constant feature.
The interior varies from light to dark purplish-

' brown; umbilical area white. Operculum sub-spiral.
Within the anterior end of the columella is a pale
-band, margined by narrow dark lines. The whole
shell is girt with fine spiral impressed lines—about
12 on the penultimate—and strongly and frequently
very coarsely ridged by lines of growth. Ground
colour greenish white; the purplish-brown colour
pattern varies considerably in different examples,
but usually consists of undulating and zigzag bands
more or less broken up. The apical whorls are
brown—lighter towards the top. Very variable in
size. Dimensions of the type:—Length, 15;
loezicliln, uit ‘aol’ leebece 3.1 Iii Glitters Tiron IL,
Mauritiana (Lamarck) chiefly in the globose form
and colour markings, which seem very constant,
but is connected by the impressed spirals and light
band in the mouth. It was listed by Tenison-Woods
in his census as L. undulata (Gray), and perhaps
comes nearest to L. cincta (Quoy and Gaim.), from
New Zealand. MHabitat—Widely distributed, and
in the same positions as L. mauritiana, but not so
universally present as that species. Type to be
placed in the Tasmanian Museum.

SCISSURBLLA ORNATA (May): N:S.; Figs. 4 and 5.
—Shell minute, obliquely discoidal, strongly ribbed
and spiralled; whorls rounded, but somewhat angled
bythe canal; mouth large, roundish, oval, and a small

ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIA MOLLUSCAN FAUNA.

but deep umbilicus. The canal forms a deep furrow,
bordered by sharp, raised edges, the whole raised
on a distinct ridge, which surrounds the shell about
midway between the suture and the periphery; on
the lower side there is a smooth, depressed area.
The strong sharp ribs begin below this area, and
continue round the whorl to enter the umbilicus.
Above the furrow raised curved ribs roughly corre-
spond to those below; they continue uninterrupted
from the central ridge to the suture. The spaces
between these ribs are cancellated by six to eight
spiral keels, much smaller than the ribs, and not
passing over them. These spirals continue between
the lower ribs, passing over the upper part of them,
there giving them a crested appearance. All these
spirals are irregularly spaced. The apex of iy
turns is,squared by a beaded ridge, and is sunken
below the level of the adult whorls, The mouth is
well defined by a continuous narrow margin; the
slit is open, deep, and of moderate width. Whorls
two, exclusive of the apes Colour, yellowish white.
Greatest) diameter, ya mleasr) | 12/4: erointay mmeroanille
Habitat :—Frederick Henry Bay; a ‘ow specimens
in kelp roots.. It has a superficial resemblance to
Schismope beddomei (Petterd), but the ribs are
more numerous and continuous, and with strong
spirals, and it is a larger shell, and a true Scissu-
rella. Scissurella coronata (Watson), Challenger
report, page 114, seems a near ally. Figs. 4 and 5.
Type in Tasmanian Museum.

BY W. L. MAY. 59

‘Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1908.

1,2, RISELLOPSIS MUTABILIS, May. 4,5. SCISSURELLA ORNATA, May.
3. LITORINA PRA{TERMISSA, May. 6. CONDYLOCARDIA CRASSICOSTA, Bernard

60 ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS.

THE ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS FOR
STONE IMPLEMENTS.

lave oraz) NOE DEIN Gs Vien ea) eae:

(Read October 12th, 1908.)

Quite in the commencement of my studies of the
stone implements manufactured by the Tasmanian
Aborigines, I noticed that the Southern tribes had a
special word for that particular rock which is generally,
though wrongly, called “ Black Flint.” Considering the
popular, though wrong, use of the word “ Flint,” by
which the word originally applied to the rock from
which a stone implement is made is used to designate the
implement made therefrom, the question naturally arose
whether this particular native word meant the imple-
ment or the substance (rock) from which it was made,
At the first glance this seems immaterial and ‘hair-split-
ting; but on closer examination it will be seen that the
question is a most important one. If this particular
word is only used to describe a special implement, it
would conclusively prove that the Aborigines inten-
tionally manufactured implements of a certain shape,
which they distinguished by a special name from all the
others. If, on the other hand, this word repre-
sented the designation of a particular kind of rock only,
the above inference cannot hold good, and the conclu-
sions derived from the morphological study of the
implements—namely, that they are devoid of all inten-
tional shape—is fully confirmed.

The vocabulary of Aboriginal words is, unfortu-
nately, very limited. Calder (1), whose compilation is

(1) Language and Dialects spoken by the Aborigines of Tas-
mania. Parliamentary Papers, 1901. No. 69.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 61

probably the most comprehensive, does not enumerate
more than 1135 words, some of which are unquestionably
adopted (2). It is more than probable to assume that,
however limited the vocabulary of Aborigines may have
been, a fair number of words have not been handed over
to us. However that may be, a combination of the
results of mineralogical and morphological studies, to-
gether with a careful examination of the vocabulary, has
led to some very interesting results.

In the first instance, however incomplete the vocabu-
lary may be, it is certain that the Tasmanian language
had no special word for some of the most important
implements in the economic life of the human race.
These implements are :—

ig Gane
Pee Otullatcivet,
aur Saw
To which we may add
4. Bow.
5. Arrow.
Gu speamon WanceElead,

It may be taken as granted that the Tasmanian language
had no distinguishing words for the above-mentioned
six implements. Consequently it is certain that the civi-
lisation of the Tasmanian Aborigines did not know these
implements, because, if it had, there would have cer-
tainly been words to designate them, and if such words
had existed we would find them in the vocabulary,
because it is improbable to assume that those who com-
piled the vocabulary of the Aborigines could have over-
looked the words for these all-important implements
had they existed and been used by the Aborigines.

Scott, who was probably the first who made a study
of the Tasmanian Archaeolithes, designates them as fol-
lows (3):—

Flint or a knife=—teroona, trawootta.

(2) For instance it is obvious that the Tasmanian word
“‘backalow’’ or ‘‘bacala’’ for bullock is derived from the
English, considering that no cattle existed in Tasmania previous
to the arrival of the Europeans.

(3) Letter on the Stone Implements of the Tasmanian
Aborigines. Papers and Proceedings, Royal Society of Tasmania,
for 1873-1874, page 24.

62 ABORIGINAL DESIGNAIONS FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS.

Plain and simple as this appears, it- is by no
means so. In what sense is the word “flint” used?
Does it mean to express the mineral flint, or does it
mean an object made from flint? I think that the latter
view is the correct one, because Scott adds, “or a
knife.’

We may therefore conclude that any cutting imple-
ment manufactured by the Aborigines was called
teroona or trawootta.

At the first glance it might appear that these are two °
absolutely different words, but I shall be able to prove
that they are practically the same.

If we look up Milligan’s vocabulary of the Tas-
manian language, we find under the heading of flint the
following words :—

Tribes about Mt. Royal, Bruni Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of Tasmania—North-West and
Western Tribes.

Mungara (Flint).
Mora trona (Flint), black.

Tribes from Oyster Bay to Pittwater—
Trowutta (Flint).

It is obvious that the words trawootta (Scott) and
trowutta (Milligan) are identical. We have, therefore,
the following words to designate the Tasmanian stone
implements :—

1. Trowutta.
2. Teroona.
3. Mungara.
4. Mora trona (black flint).

It is evident that the word “trona.” is exactly the
same as “teroona,” and, if we write the word trowutta
like this—

trowa-tta
we see that we have apparently the same root, because
it can be taken as certain that the words

Teroona,

Trona,

Trowa,

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 63

are the same. The different spelling may be due to
dialects or other reasons, but the main fact that they
are identical remains.

“ Black” flint is designated as “ mora trona,” and, of
course, if “ mora” would mean “ black,” the interpreta-
tion would be quite simple. But this does not seem
quite certain. :

Milligan states that the eastern tribes used the word
“mawback”’ or “ mawbanna,” the southern tribes the
word “loaparte”’ for black, and, though there is perhaps
a certain likeness between “ mora” and “ mawbanna,” I
would not consider this as an established fact: How-
ever that may be, we have therefore a—

1. Trona (teroona),
Zn Mora trona,
3. Trona-tta (trowutta).

Ii my interpretation be correct, the rock or the
mineral from which the implements are manufactured
was called

Trona (=teroona =trowa),

and a special kind of this rock, the fine-grained, dark
blue, or black variety, was called “ mora trona.”

The implements manufactured from this “trona”
were called
trona-tta=trowa-tta, and, 1f my interpretation is
COACH, WINS Sw ey Or ~ eh AE AIAG. S saneGle siya”
or “ manufactured from.”

There still remains the word
Mungara,

as used by the Southern tribes. For the present I am
unable to offer an explanation for this word, which, for
all we know, may be only a corrupted mora trona.

So far everything seems plain enough, but Ling
Roth publishes a vocabulary compiled by the Rev.
Norman, in which neither the word “ flint ” nor “ knife”
is mentioned. But under the heading “stone” the fol-
lowing words are enumerated :—

1. Teewartear.
2wmle aii ty:
euuwettar:

4. Noeenar.

64 ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS.

It is a peculiarity of this vocabulary that almost all
the words end either “er” or “ar,” and that, though
the spelling is very curious, the first word is no other
than the word “trowutta,” of Scott and Milligan. We
have therefore the well-known word for stone imple-
ment; but, besides this, three new words, of which it is
impossible to say whether they may mean different
types of implements or different varieties of rocks.

Now, if we refer to Ling Roth’s second vocabulary,
Appendix B, we find under the heading “a stone” the
following words :-—

Loine (Dove, Jorgen-Jorgensen, and Brain).
Lenn-parena (Gaimard).

Peoora (Scott).

Nannee (Dove, Jorgen-Jorgensen, and Brain).
Nami (M‘Geary).

Loine (Peron).

Lennicarpeny (Dove, Jorgen-Jorgensen, and
Brain).

8. Longa (dO).

nO Gis eS Cs) I

That is to say, quite a number of words, among
which we can only identify “peoora” with Norman’s
“peurar.” As it is, however, certain that “loine” and
“loine,’ as well as “nami” and “nannee,’ and “lenn-
parena’’ and “lenni-carpeny ” are identical, the above
list is reduced to four new words, and we would there-
fore have, including Normans three new words, seven

WOLQS) tO 1a stone.

A reference to Milligan’s vocabulary proves, how-
ever, that this list is less formidable than it appears.
Under the heading “stone” he gives the following
words :—

Tribes about Mount Royal, Bruni Island, Recherche
Bay, and the South of Tasmania—North-West and
Western Tribes.

Loinah, Louna, or Loine, Noanyale.

Tribes from Oyster Boy to Pittwater.
Loantennina.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 45

This proves that the words
Loinah, loine, loine, louna, longa,

and probably also larnar, are identical, and simply meant
a stone of any kind in the dialect of the Southern tribes.

Further, it may be taken as pretty certain that the

words

Loan-tennina,

Lenn-parenna,

Leni-carpeny,
are identical, and that these words meant “a stone” in
the dialect of the Eastern tribes. The relationship be-
tween this word and the word “loina” is unquestion-
aplewinasmich asim, loan a lenin: Leni | hephesent
probably the same word. Could we prove that in the
dialect of the North-West and Western tribes the “1”
is turned into “n,’ the word “noanyale”’ would more
correctly spell “loanyale,’ and therefore contain the
same root, “loan” or “loina,” as the other words.

We have therefore ten words, viz. :—
Loine.

Loiné.

Loinah.

Louna.

Longa.

Wareiatice
Loan-tennina.
Lenn-parenna.
Leni-carpeny.

10. Loan (noan)-yale.

OES OS Ole Oat aes

‘e

There can be no doubt that the first six words are
identical, and simply mean a stone (of any kind). It is
difficult to say whether the last four words have the
same general meaning as “loinah.”’ To me it seems
more probable that they represent certain kinds of rocks.
We know that the Aborigines called freestone “ ponin-
galee.” The iron glance from which they made the red
ochre was called “ latta-winne,’ and the red ochre was
“Jalla-winne.’”’ These composite words seem to prove
that the four words above-mentioned represent certain
kinds of rocks, and this view is generally strengthened

66 ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS.

by the fact that in the word for freestone the last word,
galee,” is the same as that in l(n)oan-yale. The most
conspicuous rock of Tasmania, even more so than the
freestone, is the Diabas, and, if there existed a word for
freestone, it is more than probable that there was also
a word for Diabas, and that one of these four words
stands for Diabas. Next to the Diabas comes the mud-
stone, and for the Eastern tribes the granite. If free-.
stone was “ ponin-galee,” is it too rash to assume that
the closely-connected mudstone was “1(n)oan-galee
(yale)”? The other words stand either for Diabas or
for Diabas and granite.

There remain, therefore, three words—
I. Peurat —peoora,
2. Nannee=nami,
3. Noeena(r).

If we consider the very different spelling of Nor-
man’s words, I only need to refer to a comparison of
the words teewartear (Norman) and trawutta (Milligan
and others). It is not very improbable that the word
“noeena(r)” really means “loina,’ and, if we further
consider what has above been said about the change of
the letter “17 into an “n,7 the words “nannee and
‘nami ~ originally spelt ~lanneey and “lami: W@hese
last two words have therefore most probably to be in-
cluded under the above list, meaning nothing else but
mastone::

We have therefore arrived at a probable very accu-
rate view as to the meaning of all these words except
the word

Peurar=peoora.

Mr. Ritz has kindly told me that in his opinion this
word should represent something spherical. In many
languages, as Mr. Ritz tells me, the “bill”? or “pill”
means something round or spherical (1). There is no
doubt that the word “peura” can be pronounced in
such a way as to closely resemble the primitive root,
and I think that Mr. Ritz’s suggestion is probably cor-
rect. We can practically divide the whole group of Tas-
manian implements into two classes—the chipped tron-
attas and the spherical pebbles—represented by the

(1) For instance the word ‘‘ ball.”

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D, ETC. 67

sacred stones. It is not only probable, but pretty cer-
tain, that the water-worn, rounded-off pebbles, which
were turned into sacred stones, were distinguished by a
different word from the ordinary tronatta, and Mr.
Ritz’s hypothesis comes probably very near the truth.

The result of these somewhat lengthy considerations
may be condensed as follows :—

The words !

icone lone lomanemlounay longa, larnar,
noeenar mean a stone (of any kind).

2. Loan-tennina, lenn-parenna, leni-carpeny,
noan-yale probably represent special kinds
of rocks, such as granite or Diabas.

3. Peurar, peora probably means a pebble, per-
haps a sacred stone. .

4. Trona, teroona is the word for the rock from
which an implement is made.

5. Mora trona means a peculiar variety of trona,
distinguished by a bluish black colour and a
fine conchoidal fracture.

6. Tronatta, trowutta, trawootta, teewartear is
the name for the implements which were
manufactured from trona or mora trona.

7. Mungara, meaning unknown; perhaps cor-
rupted from mora trona.

The main and most important result of this investi-
gation is the establishment of the fact that the Tas-
manian language knew perhaps two, but most probably
only one, word for the implements which were produced
by working certain classes of siliceous rocks.

I particularly wish to point out that the fact is fully
corroborated by the results of the morphological exami-
nation of the tronattas. These examinations proved
that the tronatta is a kind of universal implement which
was indiscriminately used for chopping, cutting, scrap-
ing, boring, and hammering. The Aborigines did not
manufacture an implement which, for instance, solely
and exclusively served the purposes of a knife, or a
chopper, or a scraper. Any suitable fragment of rock
could be used for any of these actions above-mentioned,
and we must take it as granted that the Aborigines
never manufactured special implements to serve special
purposes only.

68 ON DR. NOETLING’S CONCLUSIONS.

ON DR. NOETLING'S CONCLUSIONS RESPECGH-
ING THE ABORIGINAL DESIGNATIONS
FOR STONE IMPLEMENGS:

By Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.

(Read October 12th, 1908.)

Dr. Noetling’s conclusions are that—

(a) There were two classes of stone utensils—one-
consisting of round, water-worn stones, called |
pe-ura, and used for religious ceremonies; the
other of chipped, sharpened stones, called by
various names, and used for cutting;

(b) The Aborigines had perhaps two words, but
probably only one, for siliceous implements ;

The arguments he adduces from the aboriginal
vocabulary are so cogent that his conclusions are almost
inevitable. It seems to me that only some of the details
are arguable, and I shall confine myself to these.

When we investigate the language of the Aborigines
we meet at the outset with serious difficulties. In the
first place, the records are very meagre, and then, even
these were made by men who had no special training in
philology. Still, a careful collation of the vocabularies
will enable us to arrive at a greater amount of positive
knowledge than would at first be suspected.

Subject to correction, I would conclude from my in-
vestigation that—

(a) The number of words in the aboriginal
vocabulary is very small—much smaller than
the lists drawn up by Calder, Milligan, Ling
Roth, and others would lead one to expect;

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 69

(b) Many words, apparently different, are really
identical ;

(c) The apparent differences are due to a faculty
the Tasmanians seem to have had, in common
with the South Sea Islanders—namely, that of
interchanging the members of certain sound
Sioupssiom mstance, te hiquids my Vier: tas yi ,¢
“oes Bae), everrie, wae Clermeills “ie eraval tal o BbavG!
(73 eee

(d) The vowels seem to have been particularly sub-
ject to variation. Of course, this phenomenon
is, like the one just mentioned, also found in
the Indo-European languages.

’

These points are illustrated by the evidence adduced
by Dr. Noetling, and we may now proceed to the discus-
sion of his paper.

He states that the aboriginal vocabulary contains
no word for knife, axe, saw, bow, arrow, spear-head.
I could not find any of these myself, for the word for
spear-point—poyeena, poyeenta—bears a remarkable
likeness to the English “ point ’—perhaps, in the former
case especially, assimilated to “ pe-na,’ an aboriginal
word, to which we shall refer again.

(73 39

still, there are words for “gun” or “musket ”—
“le rina,’ “le langta,’ “pawleena” (pawl-lina); but
these, when dissected, mean simply “ swift weapon,”
“long or far-reaching weapon,” “round or powerful
weapon.” Indeed, it is these very words that gave me
what I think is the clue that will enable us to find a
way out of the apparent confusion of the aboriginal
vocabulary.

Next, Dr. Noetling discusses the word “ trowatta,”
which denotes a chipped implement. It consists of two
parts—“tro”’ and “atta.” He offers the conjecture that
“tta”’ is analogous to the “t” in ama-t-us (Lat.), ly-t-os
(Gr.), gelieb-t (Ger.), love-d (Eng.), and denotes some-
thing finished or made. The abruptly-ending sound of
“t” would seem to support this view.

On the other hand, when we examine the vocabu-
lary, we find the “t” or “n” (with the Oceanic epi-
thetic vowel, in practically all the nouns. For instance,

70 ON DR. NOETLING’S CONCLUSIONS.

we have liem-e-na and lim-ete (abscess), lie-ta and ne-na
(sharp), like a knife; thus, “ atta’? may be a mere noun-
suffix, though even then it might indicate a state of com-
pletion.

This leaves “tro” to account for. Dr. Noetling con-
jectures it to mean rock or stone.

I agree with this, but would go further back—viz.,

‘hard,’ as we have “tera-na,” “ teri-na” for bone,
“tra-mu-ta” a pebble, tolled quartz, where “mu” is
perhaps round, as in “ ma-bea,” to turn round (with
verbal suffix ~ bea”). “ Teru-na,” a cutting flint, and
“tro-na,’ flint, seem to be forms of the same word.
Thus “ trow-atta ” would mean a hard thing finished (by
chipping).

In “mora trona”’ (black flint) we have “ mora,” not
black, but heavy; thus, the heavy, hard thing.

“ Mungara” presents some difficulties. It might be
a compound of “muna” and “ ga-ra.” Now, “ muna”
means wood, fog, therefore, perhaps, dense, solid, and
IS VehyuNeag to | muna: (heavy). “Ga-ra”’ may have
affinity with the second part of “ ponin gale ” (freestone),
‘“noan yale” (mudstone), where “ponin” may be con-
nected with ‘pona,’ white (cloud), while we find
“noan” to be the western equivalent on Joina” (stone),
OR fathermistanrp instrument ms Gale or yale smiayaioe
connected with “ ya-na” (teeth), the natural knives.

We mentioned the cognates “lie-ta” and “ne-na”
as meaning “sharp cutting.” The significant part is “li”
or “ne.” This we find again in the following words for
“stone,’ mentioned by Dr. Noetling:—‘*‘ Loi-ne,”
le=nni, eima-nni,: 7) Moankueale: | atdy) we wemieng
strengthen the conjecture of the identity of “li” and

“ni” by some analogous cases. We find the following

words for ~woman’’—lowa;’)) loa-le;’ ~ noa-lia.?
“nowa-lia;” for “bird,” “lae-re-ne,” “ nia- rana, 7 nie-
ri-na;” for “ swift,’ “lung-a-na,? “ mung-a-na ”’ (to fly

like a bird); “lang-a-na,” “ lag-a-na,” ‘ “dog- na (foot);
“nung-a-na”’ (boat), for “running thing;” “ lug-a-na”
(river water); “ nug-e-tena (rain, with double suffix to
indicate multitude of drops) ; “ nug-a-ra ” (drink).

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. vel

We find “li” or “ni” also in the form “ri. We have
“li-e-na,” “le-na,” “ re-na”’ (kangaroo); “ re-na”’ (water
tat); rene” (to run); “li-a’’ @vater)5 “li” (weapon).

All these meanings are comprised in swift or speedy.
An edged stone will be speedier in its work as a tool
than a blunt one, and the characteristic of a living
AMMA Am GUM) Streatiy a DOA al 1OOb, a) binds 15
motion.

I agree with Dr. Noetling that “loan-tennina,”
“Jenni-parenna,’ and “leni-carpeny” are words of the
same meaning. Analysing them, we find the first parts,
piloam,* Jenni; land ~leni,) imeanme “stone suitable
for sharpening.” Stones seem to have ‘had no meaning
and no name except in so far as they were found useful.
“Tennina”’ may be akin to “tenine” (a finger or toe-
nail), “ something that scratches.” “ Parenna”’ seems to
be a form of ~“pe-re-na,’ where “pe” would mean
“pointed, sharp,” as in “ pe-na” (a lance or spear), and
/ te. would be cutting.” |” Carpenny ~ may be com-
posed of “kaw” (teeth), “pe” (sharp), and the suffix
To sahye Ole, % ines

The round stone, presumed to have been used for
religious ceremonies, was called “ pe-ura.” The explana-
tion of this word is specially difficult, as we do not know
thejexack pronunciation Orit. lithe 5 2 is harshly
trilled—as it evidently was when the recorders wrote
the same word as “prena” and “ perina,” “trona”’ and
“teruna "—it is quite possible that “peura” was but
another form of “ palla”’ (round), as we find it in “ pala”’
(SHnmstan) pala) (Guan) pulastulas 7 (eye). se pul-
bena”’ (frog), perhaps a bull-frog, “poira” (round
shell). This presents a suggestive analogy with “ ball,”
melt Dowie. nOill-Ctaaay qillemie barrel ts pearere
[DSN BOONE. Mr weaken tobe,

Another conjecture is that “peura” is a form of
“pe-una,’ where “pe’’ would have the meaning of to
HiT mGomimapena (spear), andiuina @ means fre. In
support of this we have “mungara puna” (scar), such
as would be caused by wounds inflicted during religious
ceremonies, and cauterised to preserve the marks, and
at the same time prevent mortification. Of conjectures
there is no end, but there is at any rate a beginning;

72 ON DR. NOETLING’S CONCLUSIONS.

and in the dissection of the aboriniginal words and the
collation of their parts, a scientific process is begun
which may lead to more satisfactory results than are
attainable to-day. Conjectures there must be, for we
cannot seek unless we know what we hope to find.

In conclusion, I desire to lay stress on the fact that
the available records are in a very unsystematic form.
As a curious illustration, I would mention the transla-
tion of the first chapter of Genesis, attributed to Mr.
Thos. Wilkinson. Ling Roth’s book gives a very dif-
ferent rendering from that contained in the J. B. Walker
Memorial volume, although G. W. Walker’s MS. Journal
is quoted; and, again, even that quotation is different
from its counterpart in the Memorial volume.

Further, not only does Ling Roth mention some
records which have apparently disappeared—viz., those
of Wilkinson and Sterling—but it is quite probable that
other manuscripts exist which are of no other than
sentimental value to the present possessors, and would
no doubt be obtainable for transcription. If the Royal
Society were to make a public appeal for the gift or loan
of such records, some valuable material might be saved
from oblivion.

I would finally mention that I have heard that
there exist some phonographic records of the actual
aboriginal speech; if these could be found, they would
be of the greatest value. As far as I am able to advance
the study of that speech I shall do my utmost, and feel
confident that the Royal Society will encourage my
efforts.

THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA. AZ

JAIN) JUN TIROIDUIC TUONO) isle, SIO Se(Ous Wetis
ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

By Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.

(Read November 16, 1908.)

As far as I am aware, the work done hitherto with
regard to philological studies of the Tasmanian lan-
guage has not been extensive. Ling Roth gives in an
Appendix to his book on “The Aborigines of Tas-
mania” an apparently full bibliography of the subject.
Among the works mentioned there as dealing with the
Speech of the Aboriginals, we find the following :—

CALDER.—Language of the Aborigines of Tas-
mania.

JORGENSEN.—The Aboriginal Languages of Tas-

mania.
LATHAM.—Elements of Comparative Philology.

MILLIGAN.—Vocabulary of the Dialects of some
of the Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.

MILLIGAN.—On the Dialects and Languages of
the Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania, and on their
Manners and Customs.

MULLER.—Grundriss der Sprachwissenschait.
J. B. WALKER.—Notes on the Aborigines of Tas-

mania, extracted from the manuscript. Journals

of G. W. Walker.

There are, besides, vocabularies by Norman, Dove,
Braim, Cook, Gaimard, La Billardiere, McGeary, Peron,
Roberts, Scott.

74 THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

Ling Roth has evidently made use of all these
sources of information, and embodied the result of this
researches in his book; but though very valuable for its
suggestiveness, his work is not that of a trained philolo-
gist, and it will be necessary to verify and re-examine
his references.

In Appendix F, he states:— As all the vocabularies
handed down to us are English-Tasmanian, and none
are Tasmanian-Eneglish, it was suggested to make a
compilation of one Tasmanian-English vocabulary from
ail the vocabularies. The initiative is due to Mrs. E. B.
Tylor. In preparing this vocabulary, I have attempted
to simplify the spelling as follows, where I have felt that
I could safely do so without impairing the integrity of
the word.”

Then follow the phonetic letters proposed to be em-
ployed. Tthey are, as far as the vowels are concerned,
NOMI, CO. wae saben “by “Ne aC
guttural” is to be written as “k.” No other letters are
mentioned. Duplicated consonants are simplified, and
“th,” “ch” are to be left unchanged, being doubtful.

When we examine this Tasmanian-English vocabu-
lary we observe that—

1. There are words in it not contained in the Eng-
lish-Tasmanian vocabularies given in the same book.
For instance, “abri,” arm; “ arpu,’ yes. It would seem
that Ling Roth used other vocabularies as well, or else
did not give the whole of the vocabularies he names; or
permitted misprints to remain. He quotes “alree”’ for
“arm, from Dove’s list. How is a reader to know
Witether uealnee .) (Or jtalpriewismes M11S pitt: ae temmenll
events, this work will have to be done over again.

2. There are many words taken from the French
vocabularies, in which the French phonetic spelling is
retained, instead of being transliterated according to
Italian phonetics.

In Appendix C we find Milligan’s vocabulary of
various tribes. This, apart from some printer’s errors,
is almost, but not quite, identical with that quoted by
Calder in the Parliamentary Paper which Sir Elliott
Lewis caused to be compiled in 1901. Here, again, veri-
fication is necessary.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. a5

A curious discrepancy exists in connection with por-
tions of the Book of Genesis, translated by Thos. Wil-.
kinson at Flinders Island in 1833. One specimen of it
is given by Ling Roth in Appendix D; another is in
the J. B. Walker Memorial Volume, and is evidently
an extract from Geo. W. Walker’s Journal.

Now, we should expect transcripts of the same text
to be practically identical; but these two specimens
differ essentially from each other.

In the first place, the spelling is quite different. A
few examples will suffice to show this: Walker gives
mpomlchns tor | made.) ing! skoth, =) pomable.;
Walker gives for “darkness” “lywerreh;” Ling Roth,
wlewara. Hors, said.) Walker sives . kany.) Wins:
IMOtnuas carie: |;

Walker states that Thos. Wilkinson translated three
chapters of Genesis, and also composed a considerable
vocabulary of words. If the rest of the translation and
that vocabulary could be found, they would be most
serviceable for the study of the language.

In Appendix FE, Ling Roth transcribes fairly accu-
rately the “ Popular Song” from Walker’s Journal, and
refers, for the purpose of comparison, to a version of
the same “song” by Milligan, in Appendix C, but over-
looks the version quoted by himself in Appendix D,
from Davies.

These three versions of the same song are very in-
teresting, and may prove very important.

To compare small things with great, we might
notice the curious analogy with the Rosetta stone, and
its inscription in three languages, which enabled Cham-
pollion and Young to find the key to the hieroglyphics
of Egypt; and also with the trilingual rock inscriptions
at Behistan, which led Rawlinson to discover the secret
of reading the ancient languages of Persia, Babylon,
and Assyria.

Of course, our own task is not so difficult, nor is its
importance so great; still, the trilingual record of the
same meaning should lead us to some definite result in
our quiet backwater of human life.

76 THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

Let us then compare the three versions of our song,
and see what conclusions we can deduce from them.
Omitting mere repetitions, as not pertinent to our pre-
sent purpose, we quote from Ling Roth :—

Milligan’s version:—Pappela rayna “ngonyna; toka
mengha leah; lugha mengha leah; nena taypa rayna
poonyna, nena nawra pewillah, pallah nawra pewillah;
pellawah!

Davies’ version:—Ne popila raina pogana; thu me
gunnea; thoga me gunnea; naina thaipa raina pogana;
nara paara, poivella paara; ballahoo! Hoo!

G. W. Walker’s version:—Poppyla-renung, onnyna;
tcmingannya, lemingannya; taukummingannya; nyna
tepe rena ponnyna; nyna nara pewilly para; nara
pewilly pallawoo!

This version is slightly different in the Memorial
Volume:—Instead of temingannya we have lemin-
gannya. It is probable that temingannya is a misprint
for lemingannya, or vice versa.

On analogy with the rest of the song, it is more
likely that lemingannya should be repeated than that
another word, however similar, should be used. Still,
temingannya will also give an appropriate sense; and
we shall refer to it again in that light.

For convenience of reference, we shall denote Miilli-
vans version by, Me) Dayiesmmaversion), by) WO aeud
Walker’s by W.

Looking at the whole text, we at once notice that
ce >) ce 9

practically all the words end am a,” “ah,” “na,” of
“ne.” We may safely assume that these endings have
no essential meaning, whatever meaning they may have
had originally. We find the same phenomena in many
other languages. For instance, the ending “a” indi-
cates the feminine gender in all the languages of the

Indo-European family; ‘‘s”’ is most commonly the sign
of the masculine gender, as we find it, e.g., in Aeneas,
dominus, eques, visus; in “res,” etc., the “s” is really
borrowed from the masculine nouns, and the word is

akin to mensa.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 77

In Icelandic, we have a still more striking instance
in the addition of the sound “r” to nouns and adjec-
tives; in verbs this is softened to “a.’ We have, com-
_ paring the Icelandic words with their English equiva-
lents, kongr for king, hundr for hound, vikingr for
viking, grar for gray, langr for long, blindr for blind.

To get at the chief meaning of the words, therefore,
we must cut off these excrescences; but this must be
done judiciously, for we may not know at first whether
in rayna, for example, ine “n” belongs to the root or
to the ending.

Our merit in trilingual interpretation is very much
diminished by the fact that we possess already fairly
complete lists of the words used by the Aborigines. We
are not to expect in their case a vocabulary as copious
as that of a race far more remote from the “simple
life,’ and the words we have are, comparatively speak-
ing, quite numerous enough to supply all the needs of
communication that may have been felt by the primitive
minds of our predecessors. The word “ predecessor ”’
is singularly appropriate in this connection. It means
“One who has stepped down before,’ “One who has
pre-deceased,” “One who has done before our time
what ourselves shall have to do before long—that is,
stepped down from the eminence of being the lord of
all he surveys.”

Now, Milligan tells us that our song was sung in
praise of a great chief, one who has been high in power
and glory, and has stepped down and is now forgotten.
The very fact that this song was, as Walker tells us,
used by all the’ Aboriginal tribes, must have had a
melancholy interest for the temporary recipient of the
honour, if ever he realised that, after all, he was not the
very first in power and glory.

From these hints, we may conclude that the song
probably indicated the reasons for conferring special
honour ona man. Now,.in their simple lives, there was
not much scope for the display of excellence; their
needs were few, consisting almost exclusively of food
and protection against enemies; and the best man would
be who was best able to procure plenty of food, and
security in the peaceful enjoyment of it. Their hero

78 THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

would be a man strong of body and swift of foot and
arm; and the song in his honour would lay stress on
these qualities, and express admiration for their pos-
sessor.

Resuming our scrutiny, we find in D. the first word
“ ne,’ which does not occur in M. and W. We know
that “me=na’) means Shatpesaat also means) | syotne
” and “that” (the probable meaning of the

ainel ~ i@,,
endins’ “na™~), and © lo!” of pay attention!”
oO >

We may take all these meanings together in the idea
of “separate from me.” ‘The significant sound “n” is
formed by closing the mouth and parting the lips; with
the “sharp” teeth pressing on the tongue, the outer
world is shut off from the speaker. As the joining of
the lips inwards forms “ m,” and refers to the speaker
as ‘‘me,’ so the exclusion implies the “not-me,” the

“You, ) that. = 10, the Objecrsor Olt attemuon

ce SE),

We may therefore take “ne” in D. to mean Lo!
The real beginning of the song is pappela, popila,
poppyla. Ling Roth gives us pawpela and papla as
i ieear mul ateexcue

Here we notice first the reduplication of the “ p,”
whiclt indicates emphasis, as implying. greater energy
in pronouncing the initial sound of the word. Ling
Roth gives several examples of this—e.g., kana, to talk;
kakana, to talk loudly; mura, heavy ; mumura, tree.

This leaves “ pel” as the chief part, and in it we find
the echo of pill, ball, and the Tasmanian palla, “ man”
and “sun,” and peura, “round.” To the Aboriginal
mind, muscular development or roundness was an indi-
tion of strength; a lean man would not have the same
strength as a stout one. In confirmation of this, we
need only refer to the Japanese and Turkish wrestlers,
who are usually very corpulent.

‘

Thus we get for popela the meaning “ very strong.”
We have not taken any notice of the vowels, and that
for two principal reasons. In the first place, vowels in
all languages are very subject to variation, and secondly,
the uncertainty of the accuracy of the phonetic repre-
sentation of the vowels given in our records makes it
unsafe to rely on it for an argument.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 79

The next word is given as rayna, raina, renung. In
W., it is almost certain that the letters thave been
wrongly apportioned, for M. gives the following word
as “ngonyna, which is confirmed by gunnea in D.; so
that the second word in W. should be rene, and the
third, “ngonnyna.

Thus we get in each case rene, which means
MSP eedyy ren LOUGUTE

The third word in common is ’ngonyna in M.,
‘ngonnyna in W., and three words farther on D. gives
us gunnea. T'these are evidently identical with ‘ngune,
“fire.” We note that the D. version gives words of
simpler and more guttural sound than those of M. and
W., so that it is quite in accord with the general cha-
racter of the D. version to have gunnea as equivalent
of *‘ngonyna. D. alone gives here pogana, “man.” We
shall find other words for “man” farther on, in the
three versions.

Next we have—
In M., toka mengha leah, lugha mengha leah.
In D., thu, me gunnea, thoga me gunnea.

In W., lemingannya or temingannya, taukummin-
gannya.

To begin with, we must split up the long words in
‘V. We get le mi ngannya or te mi ’ngannya, tauku
mi ‘ngannya.

Now, toka means “heel,” and lugha, “ foot.”

We recognise toka again in thoga in D., in tauku in
W., and in the shortened form thu in D.; while lugha
appears in the short form of le in W., and toka in the
Same version as te, as alternative. Thus it is possible that
both lemingannya and temingannya are right; at all
events, the analogy between lugha, le, and toka, te is
striking.

The word lia means “ speedy ” (like a spear).

There remain the words mengha, me, mi. In me,
mu, -we see the short forms of mena, meaning “ I,”
4 9) ce

me,’ or “my;” but mengha requires further conside-
ration. It occurs in M., and, when we turn to Milligan’s

80 THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

Phrases in Ling Roth, we find the explanation. There
we get, in the first ten lines, the following words for
“ give’ :—tyenna, teang, teeany. From this we may
deduce several conjectures.

If Milligan got those phrases from the same indi-
vidual, the words were liable to variation at will, within
certain limits. If he got them from individuals of the
same tribe, there was the same liberty of variation given
to each speaker. As Milligan published his work in
1858, he got his information perhaps at second hand, or
else from the Aboriginals after their banishment from
the mainland. In the latter case, tien, tian, and tiang
might represent different dialects.

The variation of tian and tiang is of a type very
common in various languages. A man of Flanders is
in French called Flamand, and in the marshes of
England, Fleming. An English chamberlain becomes in
France a chambellan, and at the Vatican a camerlengo;
while the Latin minus is in elegant Italian meno, and
in the popular speech, mingo.

The next verse of the song is :—
In M., nena taypa rayna poonyna ;
In D., naina thaipa raina pogana ;

In W., nyna tepe rena ponnyna.

Ni-na is common to the three versions, though in
D. it appears as nena. Ni means thou or you, and the
different vowel in D. suggests that the dialect of D.
bears to that of M. and W.—for these seem to be prac-
tically the same, except in the phonetic rendering—a
relation analogous to that between Doric and lonic
Greek, or between North Britain and South Britain
English.

Taypa, thaipa and tepe are evidently the same word,
meaning ‘“‘ come,” or, rather “ here.” Ta means “ stop,”
and is an echo of the “thud” heard when one thing
strikes against another. In pa or pe we recognise the
word of denoting “ activity ;” pe-na means “ spear,” the
symbol of effective activity, and the syllable be or pe
is characteristic of verbs—i.e., words of activity.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 81

Rayna, raina, rene we know already.
Pogana, in D., we know to mean “ man.”

Poonyna or ponnyna means “bird,” literally active,
speedy, as ni, like li and ri, means “ moving.”

The next line is—

In M., nena nawra pewillah, pallah nawra pewillah,
pellawah.

In D., nara para poivella para; ballahoo! Hoo!

In W., nyna nara pewilly para; nara pewilly, palla-
woo.

Nena, nyna, we know. Nawra, nara means “he,”
‘thatvone,,” ~ the man.

Pewillah, poivella, pewilly, are evidently forms of
the same word, and are connected in meaning, if not in
derivation, with pallah, para, pellawah, pallawoo, balla-
hoorall mean. man.

Ling Roth misprints poivella for powella.

Pe means “active;’ wila means “wood,” therefore
“hard,” “tough,” “strong;” so that pewila would de-
note one who was active and capable of resistance, and
therefore ““a man in his strength.” Palla is either, as
we have noted before, “ round,” and therefore “ strong,”
or it is an abbreviation of pewilla—unless, indeed, the
latter is an enlargement of palla, by the insertion of the
syllable we, which is akin to pe and be, and means
“ active,’ and may therefore be used to indicate em-
paasis. We fad stich’ ~ intixes))virequently in other
languages, from “induperator” for “imperator” in
Lucretius, to the very modern “In the Sweet (in the
sweet) By-and-by.”

Thus pallawoo would be just a variant of pawila,
with the additional emphasis of the final “ hoot,’ which
is repeated in D. as Hoo!

The only remaining word is para, and this is in all
probability a variant of palla; the interchange of liquid
Cousonanessven lean atid irs yer mand 9° 11s) a very
common phenomena everywhere. For instance, many
Chinese will pronounce ring as ling.

82 THE ABORIGINAL SPEECH OF TASMANIA.

Thus we have accounted for every word of the song
—truly, I hope, plausibly at all events.

We have yet to establish the meaning of the groups
—that is, we have to explain the sentences.

The key to this meaning is contained in the
“Phrases”? quoted by Ling Roth from Milligan and
others.

In these phrases, we observe that there is no sign
of any accidence. The words seem invariable in form
and widely applicable in meaning, as we have already
seen. The order of the words, supplemented, probably,
by gestures, would define the exact meaning.

In this respect, we find an interesting parallel in the
syntax of the Chinese language. We cannot now enter
into this subject, except so far as to give a few speci-
mens.

Take the sentence, “I will not give you any water.”

Milligan gives for this:—Noia meahteeang meena
neeto linah; literally, “ Not me give you stop water.”
In the Chinese Mandarin speech, the sentence would
be:—Ngo moo ki, ki gni shoey; literally, ““ Me not give
give you water.”

In Milligan, the group meahteeang meena is inte-
resting; it is, taking the roots only, mi tien mi, and
seems analogous with “he gives,” where “he” and the
‘ial Sj in) sives | vhavyesthemsame a The
Indirect Object is expressed in different ways. In Tas-
manian we say ‘you stop,” that is, “ my giving stops
Ake yiorel aint Chinese, we use the word give 4 itself as
the index of the object to whom any action applies. 7 I
sing to you” would be rendered “me sing, give you’
(the benefit).

We may now proceed with our own English version
of the song in its three forms :—

M. is literally,—mighty, run, fire, heel, my, speedy,
foot, my, speedy, thou, come, run, bird, thou, very, great
man, man, very, great man, hero!

In plain English, “ With might runs the bush fire;
my heel, too, is speedy, and my foot is swift. Come
thou, and run with the speed of a bird! Thou art a real
warrior, a man indeed, a warrior, a hero!”

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 83.

D. would be, in plain language, “ Lo! with might
runs the man; my heel is swift like fire, my ‘heel indeed
is swilt like fire. Come thou and run like a man; a very
man, a great man, a man who is a hero! Hurrah!”

W. is in meaning a combination of M. and D., thus:
— “With might runs the fire; my heel is like fire, my
foot is like fire; come thou, run like a bird; thou art
indeed a great man; a man indeed, a great man, a hero!
Hurrah!”

Milligan says that these verses were sung as an ac-
companiment to a native dance, in honour of a great
chief.

This explanation was very helpful in my search after
ie iameerainer oN inte sole 9 Wine selahyiclaban, ais Clleanlhy
marked, and the repetitions are very suggestive.

Walker says that this song was popular among all
the Aboriginal tribes, but that he had not obtained its
meaning, as it was by them involved in some mystery.

The fact that the song exists in different dialects
makes it most valuable to us. It is quite probable that
this song was connected with some important tribal
ceremonies, and would not be willingly explained to
strangers.

Miay it not rather have been the ~ Popela Song,”
~ line Some or dae Miva One,” lem fy © leopbilenr
Song) 7?

Davies says, “I cannot translate it, nor, could I do
so, is the subject very select?”

This presents a charming specimen of sly humour.
See how neatly he escapes any inquiry as to the mean-
‘ing of the song, by suggesting that it would not be quite
proper to speak of such things in polite society!

We, at all events, have avoided any impropriety in
our rendering, and seem to have reconstructed one
scene of the lite of Old Tasmania; in imagination
chiefly, and with a due sense of the defectiveness of our
knowledge; but still, in the hope that we ‘have found
the way that will, in time and after arduous and sympa-
thetic efforts, enable us to hear once more “ The sound
of a voice that is still.”

REPORT

(Ope 2NS08,

ROYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA

FOR THE YEAR

1908.

Gobart.

Printed at ‘‘ The Examiner’’ Office, Patterson Street, Launceston.
1909.

REPORT.

The Council of the Royal Society have the honour to present their
Report for 1908 to the Annual General Meeting of the Society.

Nine Monthly General Meetings and one Special General Meeting
were held during the year. Eleven Ordinary Meetings and four Special
Meetings of the Council were held during the same period.

Twenty-seven Fellows and three Associates were elected, and
fifteen Fellows allowed their membership to lapse during the same
period, and the deaths of three Fellows were recorded.

Three vacancies in the Council occurred through the retirement of
Mr. A. G. Webster, Colonel Legge, and the Right Rev. Dr. Mercer
(Bishop of Tasmania), and were respectively filled by the election of
Dr. Noetling, Mr. E. L. Piesse, and Mr. A. D. Watchorn.

On the retirement of Mr. Webster, who had been a member of the

Council for thirty-nine years, and Chairman of the Council for some
"years past, the Council expressed their appreciation of the services
rendered by him during his long connection with the Society.

At a Special General Meeting on November 25, 1908, an amendment
of Rule 16 was adopted, to the effect that the annual subscription should
be reduced to £1 in the case of Fellows resident more than fifteen
miles from Hobart. ‘

The following papers were read during the Session of 1908:—

Notes on a Chipped Boulder from near Kempton, by Fritz Noet-
ling, M.A., Ph.D.

On State Borrowing and Sinking Funds for the Redemption of
State Debts regarded from an Economical Point of View, by R. M.
Johnston, F.L.S., 1.8.0.

On a Recent Visit to the River Gordon, illustrated by lantern slides,
with remarks on the need of reservation of land along the banks of
the River, by J. W. Beattie.

On the Native Quarry at Syndal, near Ross, by Fritz Noetling,
M.A., Ph.D.

On a Native Burial Ground at Charlton, near Ross, by Fritz Noet-
ling, M.A., Ph.D.

Additions to the Tasmanian Molluscan Fauna, by W. L. May.

The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements, by Fritz Noet-
ling, M.A., Ph.D.

On the conclusions of Dr. Noetling respecting the Aboriginal
Designations of Stone Implements, by Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.

An Introduction to the Study of the Aboriginal Speech of Tas-
mania, by Hermann B. Ritz, M.A.

Considerable time and attention were given by the Council to the
questions of the printing of the Society’s Papers and Proceedings, and
of the avoidance of the long delays that have occurred for some years
past in the publication of authors’ papers. The negotiations were
finally concluded for the necessary printing, and authors’ copies of all
papers read before the Society have now been published and distributed.

The Society is under obligations to a Committee of Fellows, who
investigated the contents of the Library, and set apart a number of
duplicates and miscellaneous publications unconnected with the objects
ot the Royal Society, so that they should be available for exchange or
sale..

A Balance-sheet, duly audited. showing the receipts and expenditure
for 1908, is appended.

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‘SHHH NOILISOGNOO AWHIT

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

The Annual General Meeting of the Royal Society oi Tasmania
was held in the Society's rooms, Museum, on Friday, 5th March, 1909.
In the absence of the President (His Excellency the Governor, Sir
Gerald Strickland), Mr. Bernard Shaw, on the motion of Mr, T.
Stephens, seconded by Dr. Butler, was voted to the chair. A fair
number of Fellows were present.

RE-ELECTION OF RETIRING MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

There being no other nominations, the retiring members of the
Council for the year, Dr. Elkington and Dr. Butler, and Messrs. E. L.
Piesse and A. D. Watchorn, were re-elected.

ELECTION OF FELLOWS.

The following gentlemen were elected as Fellows of the Society:—
Messrs. T. M. Donovan, L.R:C:S.; J.D) Miller, H. M. Sich) andi
Shoobridge.

ANNUAL REPORT.

The Annual Report for 1908 was read by the Secretary to the
Council.

The Chairman, in moving the adoption of the Report and Balance-
sheet, said, in reference to the Committee of Fellows who had investi-
gated the Society’s library, that their work had been carried out in a
most thorough manner, and the proceeds derived from the sale of books
would go towards the purchase of new works.

In seconding the motion, Mr. T. Stephens said that the members
of the Council who had drafted the Annual Report had been unable to
gain any information about the Honorary ard Corresponding Members
of the Society at the present time. The latest particulars that they had
been able to discover were in the Annual Report for 1891. It ap-
peared from the records that at the Annual Meeting of 1902 it was
resolved that the list of Fellows and Members should be annually pub-
lished, in accordance with the original practice, but no trace of such
publication has yet been discovered. In reference to the balance-sheet,
which had been compiled with great care by their Honorary Treasurer,
Mr. Shaw, he (Mr. Stephens) might say that, if there should be a mode-
rate increase in the number of Fellows, and nothing extravagant was
done in the way of printing, there was a fair prospect of the possibility
of making a general reduction in the amount of the annual subscription
at the end of the current year.

The motion was put to the vote and carried.

REPORTS OF SECTIONS.

The Report of the Medical Section was received, and read. It dealt
with the progress of the medical branch during the year, and stated
that its establishment had gone a long way towards creating a feeling
of harmony in the medical ranks. Its popularity was evinced by the
ever-increasing membership. .Several new works had been added to the
library, bringing it up to a most efficient stage. The ordinary meetings
had all been well attended, and the members one and all evinced great
interest in the Society.

On the motion of Mr. Stephens, it was resolved, “ That the usual
grant of £12 to the Medical Section of the Society for the purchase of
medical works be continued for the current year.”

APPOINTMENT OF AUDITOR.
Mr. Echlin was re-appointed Auditor, and the meeting closed.

SE OF FELLOWS AND ASSOCIATES

OF TH

ROYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANIA.

* Fellows who have contributed Papers read before the Society.
t Life Members.
The Addresses of Members residing in Hobart are omitted.

FELLOWS:

AGN E We i EVER.

ALLWORK, F., L.S.A., New Norfolk.
ARCHER, WM. HENRY DAVIES, Longiord.
ANDERSON, G. M., M.B., C.M., Franklin.
ARMSTRONG, HUGH, F.R.C.S.

INSIEL, IPI IRC,

AKIN GS; We A:

*+BARING, REV. F. H., Orford.
*BAKER, HENRY D.

BARCLAY, DAVID.

*BEATTIE, J. W.

BENNETT, WM. HENRY, Ross.
BUDE NCORE OSE RFE

BRAIN, REV. ALFRED, M.A.
BROWNELL, F. LESLIE, New Town.
BURGESS, HON. WM. HENRY.
BUTLER, ARTHUR, Lower Sandy Bay.
BUTLER, FRANCIS.

BUTLER, HON. GAMALIEL HENRY, M.R.C.S., M.E.C.
BENNISON, THOMAS.

CAMP BPE: Ds IvaB:

sal Oat Dy Wt) sl El Sd il a Bl Ol lt AVI nee Ooh

CLARKE, REV. GEORGE, Moonah.

COUNSEL, EDWARD ALBERT.

CROSBY, HON. WILLIAM, M.L.C.

CROUCH RINE Sie )wVighkwGrss

CRUICKSHANK, JAMES H., LT.-COL. R.E., Glenorchy..
CROWTHER, EDWARD L,, M.D.

DAVIES, HON. JOHN GEORGE, M.H.A., New Town.
DAVIES, HON. CHARLES ELLIS, M.L.C.
DECHAINEAUX, L.

De HOGHTON, CAPT. THOMAS, R.N., Pontville.
DELANY, HIS GRACE ARCHBISHOP.

DOBBIF, EDWARD D., Sandy Bay.

“DOBSON, HON. HEIN RY:

*ELKINGTON, JOHN S. C., M.D.

ERNST- eos FE Mop M. Se., Neuchatel, Switzerland
EVANS, L.

EVANS, Si cpnas MAY, New Town.

EWING, HON. NORMAN K.

TFOSTER, HENRY D.
TFOSTER, JOHN D.
EINGEAYS VWieAe

TGRANT, C. W.

CiBlIN Se YN DE URS WEA:
GIBLIN, W. W.

GOULD, ROBERT, Longford.
*GREEN, A. O., Bellerive.
EGOUILID, JEls I,

HARRISON, E. J., Bellerive.
HARRISON, MALCOLM.

TRUATIR WIE, WWURILIPIGIR, JA, IMIR (CoS.5 MILB
TSB AZTE IR, TRIE WS Jog IMLVA.

HOGG, G. H., M.D., Launceston.
HORNE, WILLIAM.

PRE AND ase Wes Win (CMe

Se) OLEN SON Ae a MEAS
FOLINSLON ROBE REL: Me habe S sal St@:

KERR, GEORGE.
*KINGSMILL, HENRY C., M.A.
KNIGHT, H. W., Sandy Bay.

“PHoGGE VUNGENID Wis COle RAL Cullenswood:
LEWIS, MAJOR R. C.

LEWIS, HON. NEIL BIL ILAM OVNI IDC Ws WL, ICME Ge

New Town.
ILJUNIES, ID, Tel, 1B, WML 1B-
BOD DRA VIESSH Nir otislelensss
WORDS EW.
LOWVMBOINID, RUE. Tale Jo, MIVA.
LOWE, JOSIP, IMC 8.

MASON, M.

PORE in Gx lerichos

AVUANE MWe ies Sandtord:

VOI RIN DSAY S:, MOBS (ChB:

*MOORE, GECRGE BRETTINGHAM, C.E.
TM‘'CLYMONT, J., Queenborough.

*McAULAY, PROFESSOR ALEXANDER, M.A.
Misr RN@ Ne. J. 1:

D4.

MACFARLANE, HON. JAMES, New Town.
MACGOWAN, E. 7., MB, Bus!
MUNCIE OID), IPS Jo, we,

NICHOLAS; GEORGE C,; Ouse:
*NOETLING, FRITZ, M.A., Ph.D., Sandy Bay.
NICHOLLs, W. MINCHIN.

OLDHAM, E.

PARKER, A. C., New Town.

PARSONS, MISS 8S. R.

SS. E. L., B.Sc., LL.B., New Town.

IPRA COURTNEY.

PROPSTING, HON. WM. BISPHAM, New Town.
{PPE RDs We beiCMipZes.mleaumeeston:

RADCLIFF, HAMILTON.

TRIED). AN IR,

SRIMCZ, lel, IB ys, MLAS

ROBIE RNS) EEE INIROY, VEE VVeERle Ie aN.
*RODWAY, LEONARD, Sandy Bay.

TSPROTT, GREGORY, M.D.

TSTICHT, ROBERT, Queenstown.
SCOMMPOEeSEen Watnicestons

SCO ROBERT IGS OVEbea Cale

SHAW, BERNARD, LO. Sandy Bay.
SHOOBRIDGE, REV. CANON GEORGE.
*SIMSON, AUGUSTUS, Launceston.
“STEPHENS, THOMAS, M.A., F.G:S.
SOIEIEIN CII, late J,

SEAL, LEONARD P.

TARLETON, JOHN W., Sandy Bay.

IBA WILTOIR, JA, Je

-TDWEALVETREES, W. H., F.GS., Launceston.
*THOMPSON, REV. EDWARD H.

WALCH, CHARLES.

WATCHORN, ARTHUR DENISON.
WEBSTER, ALEXANDER GEORGE.
WEBSTER, C. ERNEST, Sandy Bay.
WEBSTER, GEORGE A., M.B., M-R.C.S.
*WERYMOUTH, W.

AW VEL, (Qs, IE,

WHYTE, JAMES WILKINSON, New Town.
WINTER, ALFRED.

WHS Eee:

WOLFHAGEN, J. EDGAR, M.B., C.M.
WOLFHAGEN, WALDEMAR, New Town.

YOUNG, RUSSELL, New Town.
ASSOCIATES:

BLACK, R. A.
OSBORNE, JOHN, Junior.

| OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA

FOR THE YEAR

1909.

—_
a“

“ysonian instiz, o>
ge ; Oty aN

BeU ov 4 ed

/ OA.
\uh le AA

sePr

Bubart.

Printed at “fhe Examiner” and ‘ Weekly Courier’’ Oftices,
73-15 Patterson Street, Launceston,

PAPERS AND PROCEEDINGS

ROYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA

FOR THE YEAR

1909.

Hobart.
Printed at ‘fhe Examiner” and “ Weekly Courier’’ Ottces,
73-15 Patterson Street. Launcest .

The responsibility of the statements and opinions
given in the following Papers and Discussions
rests with the individual authors or speakers;

the Society merely places them on record.

Royal Society of Tasmania,
te 1909.

Patron :
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

President -:
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GERALD STRICKLAND,
K.C.M.G., Succeeded by
Ee Se eRe le Ni CMI SLRS LOR RIB ARRON: KeCaviiGr
CoO!

Hice-Presidents :
OS (SMMRIPISUBINS) IMAG IPAS),
IR, IME, JOURINSLOIN, IELL.S,, US.Q-

Cuunril :
T. STEPHENS, M.A., F.G:S.
RUSSELL YOUNG.
IR, IML JOWUNGION, IEIC.S., 1S;O:
BERNARD SHAW, L.S.O.
HON. G. H. BUTLER, M.R.C.S., M.L.C.
G. E. BRETTINGHAM MOORE, M.H.A.
GREGORY SPROTT, M.D.
TS. Co BILIRIINCROIN, WILD),
FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D.
1B, IL, IIE SIs, BaSe., ILJLA18.
A. D. WATCHORN.
G. A. WEBSTER, M.B.

Chairman of the Council
BERNARD SHAW, 1.8.0.

Gnnnrary Creasurer :
BERNARD SHAW, LS.O

Secretary to the Comwvil
ROBERT EU.

Auditor -
TAI, WW, WAY, IB(CIAIC IN

Order of retirement from the Council in 1911:—Messrs G. H. B. Mocie,
T. Stephens, Bernard Shaw, Dr. Spree

CONTENTS.

A.
Aborigines of Tasmania—
‘Use of Red Ochre (F. Noetling) . Reevebenstentsie
A Group of Tronattas (F. Noetling) .
Rocks used in Manufacture of Tronattas (EF. Noet-
ling) .
Names for Minerals and Rocks (F. Noetling) .
Speech of the Aborigines ET. Ae) :
Annual Meeting : ue

Haron oi Elangy. KuCsMiG: ©. VeOx acceptance of ofice
as President .

Botanists, Records of Tasmanian iG. H. “Maiden) .

Brachycome melamecainpa (lL, IN@GhwweR)) oo ce ca 6

Conversazione, Amendment of Rules to provide for .

1D),

Derwent Valley Ballas Extension, Geological Notes on
(T. Stephens) .

Flynn, 7 T., Points in the Morpholog y and “Anatomy of
certain Megapodes ..

Fossil Tree in Drift on North-West ‘Coast ice Stephens)

‘Glacial Action in Derwent Valley .....
Glacial Beds at Freestone Bluff, Wynyard (@, Noetling)..
‘Graphite, Specimen from River Kermandie .. ae

McAulay, A., Applications of Multenions to Metageometry
Maiden, J. rie Records of Tasmanian Botanists .. .
Megapodes, Points in Morphology and Cy of a
Thomson Flynn) . DPR
Minerals of Tasmania (W. if Petterd) . site
Multenions, A. McAulay on Applications to Metageometry

Nectria cinnibarina, a specimen exhibited ..

Noetling, F.—
A Peculiar Group of Tronattas .. ... ae
Red Ochre and its uses by Aborigines on Tasmania be
Rocks used in Manufacture of Tronattas ..
Names given to Minerals and Rocks by Aborigines of

Tasmania aoe

Glacial Beds at Freestone Bluff, Wynyard .

Page.

Vill.

Vill.
We
X11.
Vi.
Viil.

CONTENTS.—Continued.

O.
Page
Ochre, Red, its uses by the Aborigines of Tasmania (F.
Noetling) . Mer eies Ac. 3 Vv.
Onagraceae, Tasmanian om: Rodway) . STARING Ae ea
ips
Petterd, W. F., The Minerals of Tasmania .. .. =i sre ae
Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Tasmania nei K. Wara) « By nt ES;
Presidentis Address )) 2s) 2 A
IR.
Rep OGEMOTETOOO NOU h/t 2s MAURO Sa, foals a a Ae Po Pa
Rodway, L.— ;
Tasmanian Onagraceae .... . Lv Na tA Ae aa
Notes on Brachycome melanocarpa RODEN AR OE ILS SE
Reiley AatoAmme de dys) oh ah aii. ceegutice el cera unr Ce ea aT
S.
Shackleton, Sir Ernest, elected an Honorary Member .. vii.

Stephens, T.—
Fossil Tree embedded in Drift on North-West Coast vii.
Geological Notes on Country traversed by Derwent

Walley: iRenikigeny lESsiemenom 35 o9088964 66 so055 45° Sauk
Stricklands "SitiGeraldAddressias President 2. 2455) 22) sande
Ans
Tronattas, a Peculiar Group of (F. Noetling) . het ee
Tronattas, Rocks used in Manufacture of (F. Noetling aye. Vil.
W.

Ward. L. K.. on the Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Tasmania .. ibe

IO.

ED.

€3.

PAPERS.

Records of Tasmanian Botanists, by J. H. Maiden,
BIL.S. (Cormmspomelinne IMieamber)) sci do 64 co oe c

A peculiar Group of Tronattas, by Fritz Noetling,
INTO NW rer Een TESS Tae Seve ed oe Urania MPN nwen Satie WALL oa

Red Ochre and its use by the Aborigines of Tasmania,
lox lee IN@e@uling, IMLA, IPR ID, 3. es s6 2c 60 ee 85

Tasmanian Onagraceae, by L. Rodway ..

The Speech of the Tasmanian Aborigines, by Hermann
I eee Rents ZA VNR NG Wa ae Se meee eA ct Sy Aa ee Neen ga Masta ante

Notes on the Occurrence of a Fossil Tree embedded
in Drift on the North-West Coast of Tasmania, by
T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S. ..

Rocks Used in the Manufacture of Tronattas, by Fritz
Noeicline, IMA. JEMID. 55 2

Notes on the Names given to Minerals and Rocks by
the Aborigines of Tasmania, by Fritz Noetling,
INT El 2 aD SE Ne Oar ieee NA tre Ne 8 een tee

A Contribution to the Geology of Tasmania—The Pre-
Cambrian Rocks—by L. Keith Ward, B.A., B.E...

Note on Brachycome melanocarpa, Sonder, by L.
Io Glivycinyae ene ested) ican penn i Ose SL Mat PRM

Notes on the Glacial Beds at Freestone Bluff, Sandy
Cove, near Wynyard, by Fritz Noetling, M.A.,

Geological Notes on the Country traversed by the Der-
went Valley Railway Extension, by T. Stephens,
DANS VB CSV ie py at ihc

Points in the Anatomy of Certain Megapodes, by T.
‘Wiorms@rm IMiymiM:, BRASes ae 24 os del odoed co be ee be

Page.

(74)
ty

157

170

175

Royal Society of Casmantia.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
APRIL, i900.

The General Meeting of the Society was postponed for x
month.

MAY 3, 1909.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at the
Museum on Monday evening, May 3, 1900.

His Excellency the Governor, Sir Gerald Strickland,
K.C.M.G. (President) in the chair.

In attendance on His Excellency were Sir Charles Lucas,
K.C.M.G., and Hon. A. A. Pearson, C.M.G., Dominions De-
partment, Colonial Office, Downing-street, London.

YICEK-PRESIDENTS.

The President appointed Messrs. T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S.,
and R. M. Johnston, F.L.S., I.S.O., Vice-Presidents of the
Society for the current year.

ELECTION OF FELLOWS.

Messrs. A. KE. Blackman, F. E. Burbury, W. Burn, W. F. D.
IBiutelere, MiSs, Ss IP. Citiisjoy VAL IR IP, (Cross, 10, 405. Bihan,’ 1B}Sye,
A. V. Giblin, W. S. Lake, M.Sc, EF. M. Law, M. W. Simmons,
C. E. Toovey, and L. K. Ward, B.A., B.E., were elected Fellows
of the Society.

ADDRESS OF PRESIDENT.

The President delivered the following address:—

“Tn consequence of my absence from Tasmania on leave, a
period of two years is under review, but it is remarkably devoid
of great and startling discoveries. ‘The scientific periodicals are,
however, full of evidence of steady progress in the improvement
of previous inventions.

The Wright Brothers achieved mechanical flight several
years ago. The President of the French Republic has recently
expressed his regret that the invention of a Frenchman, who.
was really the first to make a machine fly, had been offered to
the War Office, successfully tested, and officially rejected. In
the present year flying machines are being made by the hundred,
and they have become a substantial factor in plans of military
offence and defence. But, so far, only daring and highly-trained
experts can navigate them, and the difficulties of starting and

11.

alighting make them as yet unsuitable for purposes of explora-
tion. They are also unable to carry any considerable weight.
On the other hand, the dirigibld balloon has been brought to
such a degree of perfection that the carrying of a dozen men
and several tons of stores is merely a question of money.

When it is remembered that the unexplored portion of
Tasmania is very large, that the mineral belt which probably
contains many. a mine of the value of Lyell or Bischoff is most
difficult of access by land, I feel the time is approaching when
an enterprising Government may seriously consider the hiring
of a dirigible balloon to carry out preliminary aerial surveys,
and facilitate and encourage the subsequent work of prospectors
following the ordinary methods.

At the time of my last address to this Society, scientiiec men
were justified in laughing at wireless telephony as the objective
of visionaries; but the rapid achievements in practice oi wire-
less telephony are already astounding. The human voice has
been audibly transmitted without wires a distance of 260 miles.
With regard to wireless telegraphy. there have been great im-
provements, of which the most remarkable is the development
of automatic transmission up to the speed of 120 words a minute.
With regard to land telegraphs, the operation of a line without
repetition has been extended over 7,000 miles. Less than a year
ago serious people were laughing at Mr. Henniker Heaton’s
advocacy of telegrams at a penny a word, but now, by direct
overland transmission to Southern Asia, and by wireless trans-
mission thence to the shores of Australia, the possibility of
penny-a-word telegrams, or, at least, of telegrams at greatly
reduced rates, has been brought within the range of practical
politics.

With regard to shipping, when I last addressed you the
Mauretania and the Lusitania, which have fulfilled all expecta-
tions, were considered marvellous for their size, as well as for
their speed, but already ships of nearly twice their size are being
built. These larger ships do not aim at a speed much above 20
knots, but it is probable that their size will offer immunity from
sea sickness and a great reduction in the cost of luxurious
trans-Atlantic travelling. They; are being built with English
capital, and will probably be propelled by an economical com-
bination of high-pressure reciprocating engines and low-pres-
sure turbines.

This line of development is important to Tasmania. ‘The
most enterprising shipowners. have already given a warning to
Melbourne and Sydney that much work will have to be done to
their water-ways before really large vessels can be built for the
Australian trade.

Long before any other Australian port is fit to receive
them, 40,000-ton vessels may be built, able to come to Australia
at 20 knots by the Cape, and if the passenger traffic should
warrant the experiment, Hobart may expect to enjoy its natural
claims to be the port of transhipment and coaling for the Com-
monwealth terminus.

The providing of mechanical aids for the rapid coaling of
vessels has received successful attention at Fremantle, Western

iil.
Australia, as well as in South Africa and Japan. Even under
present conditions there are vessels leaving Melbourne that
could profitably be loaded down two or three feet if the depth
‘of water allowed. If sufficient capital were expended to provide
facilities for the rapid and cheap mechanical coaling of such

vessels in Hobart, Tasmanians might obtain work and profits in
return for the depth of water in the Derwent.

Another practical achievement tending to lower freights in
the future has been the successful test of the internal combus-
tion engine, worked with producer gas on a scale suitable for
ocean-going vessels. This invention is more remarkable for the
great economy in wages of stokers, trimmers, and engineers
than in the already well-known economy in fuel obtainable by
“using producer gas. Nevertheless some years must elapse before
this system is adopted commercially to any great extent. It is
suggested that the gas engines running at high velocity in one
direction should produce electricity to be redeveloped by motors,
reversible and adjustable, operating propellors at an efficient
rate of revolution.

The centrol of water resources for the purpose of generat-
ing power and of irrigation is receiving all over the world the
‘keen attention of sagacious men, eager to appropriate unearned
increments now going to waste.

In countries long settled and thickly populated, riparian
‘rights, catchment areas, and land values complicate and impede
this line of progress. In a new country, rapidly developing, and
gifted with high tablelands and ample rainfall, such as this State
of ours, the sooner the level of lakes is raised, and new lakes
are created by damming rivers, the better for the future pros-
pects of large manufacturing development created by the appli-
tion of water power.

Another possibility of the regulation of water for irrigation
purposes may be illustrated by “reference TOM ue) Werywemts alt
this river were provided with a lock this side of Bridgewater,
‘steamers could pass freely, while the salt water would be pre-
vented from contaminating many miles of river bank, along
which fresh-water irrigation would become available.

With reference to minerals, the transmutation of metals has
been achieved, or at least there is very weighty scientific autho-
‘rity for this assertion. Rubies and sapphires have been manu-
factured on a commercial scale in absolute equality with the
natural stones as regards chemical composition, and mechanical
tests of hardness and of refraction of light.

But it is still cheaper to mine silver than to produce it by
transmutation from copper, and Tasmanian miners need have no
-anxiety by reason of this great discovery, even if it be all that
is asserted of it. Sapphires are found in Tasmania; they are
distinguished from manufactured sapphires by showing flaws
and other defects, well known to those who possess genuine
stones. The manufactured sapphire has the peculiar fault of
being absolutely uniform and flawless. ‘Tasmanian copper may
sufter from the great development of aluminium, which is now
being produced so cheaply that it has become, fora given price,
ta much cheaper conductor of electricity than copper.

The art of extracting minerals from refractory ores is mak-
ing rapid progress. It is always an open question whether scien-
tific results obtained in the laboratory, even on a very large
scale, will prove commercially practical in the immediate future.
Nevertheless, it may be taken for certain that, in a future not
very remote, the success of the laboratory experiment will be-
come the success of the enterprising capitalist, and I look for--
ward with confidence to the future of the vast: low-grade pro-
positions on the west of Tasmania.

This Society has done much to draw attention to the need
for the scientific regulation of forestry, and the economic intro--
duction of rapid-growing timber from the Northern Hemi-
sphere. I have taken an active interest in this movement, and
I am glad to be able to congratulate Tasmania that at last the-
Government has made a satisfactory beginning in the direction
of one of the most profitable and most necessary of State indus-
tries, namely, forestry, in a country where the State alone can
at present be tempted to this form of investment at moderate-
compound interest.

The principal feature with regard to transportation on land
is the rapid conversion of railroads from steam to electric trac-
tion, It is safe to say that in this line mechanical and technical
difficulties have been overcome; it is only a question of having
sufficient traffic to justify conversion financially. Sooner or later
this day will come for Tasmania. It behoves the representatives
of the people to guard against any wasteful alienation of the
water power now belonging to the State. The running of a train
on a monorail evoked widespread interest, but the risks and
complications involved prevent its being a competitor with
narrow gauge lines for the commercial handling of ordinary
goods trafhe. 5

The great interest taken by the Australian Government,
and by Australian explorers, in the recent successful Antarctic-
expedition, recalls to mind that Sir John Franklin was the
founder and first president of this Society. Meetings were then
held at the old Government House, where Franklin Square and
the Public Buildings now are. It has often been said that the
value of the old site to-day more than covers the cost of the-
present Governor's establishment.

The Government Statistician, Mr. Robert Mackenzie John-
ston, was deputed by us last year to represent Tasmania at the
foundation of the celebration, in London, of the one hundredth
anniversary of the Royal Geographical Society. The records
of this Society contain a series of most valuable papers on
geology, including the extensive and brilliant contributions of
Mr. Johnston, who has also read papers on economic and statis-
tical questions, of exceptional originality and worth. This teads
one to express a hope that the Royal Society of Tasmania will
continue to welcome papers on an eve er-increasing variety of
scientific subjects, and aspire more and more to the breadth of
view of its great founder.

The opportunities before this Society are very promising; -
there is a yearning in a community such as ee for a common
meeting- ground for men of culture, who are devoted to study
and research, and for those anxious to elevate their knowledge;.

it is to these that the Royal Society of Tasmania can offer
golden opportunities for the free exchange of ideas, for mutual
assistance, and for the publication of original discoveries.

Nowadays, science advances with increasing rapidity, and
the newly-discovered specialist should always be heartily wel-
comed, and never discouraged. May the future of the Royal
Society be ever marked with the ecordiality and friendship be-
ween members, which have added joy to my term of office; may
its governing body be progressive and on the alert to move
with the growing demands of learning; may added membership.
and renewed energy make this am attractive centre to men of
genius and men of leisure, to the hard-worked official, and to
the rising amateur, and may the splendid work accomplished by
the establishment of these useful rooms, of this noble museum,
and of this valuable library, be an incentive to yet more success-
ful efforts.”

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:

(1) Records of Tasmanian Botanists. By J. H. Maiden,
F.L.S., Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. (Correspond-
ing Member.)

This paper is part of a series of records relating to the several
States of the Commonwealth, most of which have been already
published, and is especially interesting as giving an account of
the life and work of Mr. Ronald Gunn, the father of Tasmanian
Botany. In addition to the memoirs of local botanists, the
paper also contains notes of the work in Tasmania of men who
are more properly styled Australian Botanists, among whom
may be mentioned Labillardiere, Robert Brown, Backhouse, and
Von Mueller.

(2) A peculiar group of Tronattas. By Fritz Noetling, M.A.,
IPIhsID).1 Gee.

In reference to the stone implements of the Aborigines of
Tasmania, the “ tronattas,” the author remarks that they repre-
sent the typical archaeolithic stage somewhat modified, as noted,
in his first paper on the subject. Comparing them with a large
collection of European specimens, he concludes that they re-
present the highest stage of the archaeolithic civilisation. The
group of implements forming the subject of the papers and the
“mode of construction, are described in minute detail, and they
are compared with European specimens.

(3) Red Ochre and its uses by the Aborigines of Tasmania.
By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D., etc.

The author points out that the early records prove that the
males smeared hair and beard with a mixture of red ochre and
grease, and that he had found pieces of red iron ore at their
camping grounds. He enumerates from different vocabularies
the terms used in describing the process, and concludes that it
was an exclusive male adornment.

vi.
JUNE 14, 1900.

_ The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at the
Museum on Monday evening, June 14, 1909.

Mr. Bernard Shaw, I.S.O., in the chair.

ELECTION OF FELLOWS.

Messrs. K. Norman, LL.B, J. Black N. K. Ewing, Lib:
A. Pedder, and A. Wertheimer, were elected Fellows of the
Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:
(1) The Minerals of Tasmania. By W. F. Petterd, C.M.Z.S.

_ Dr. Noetling remarked that the paper was not one that could
be dealt with in detail, but it would furnish ample material for
interesting discussion after being printed, and the Society was
‘deeply; indebted to Mr. Petterd for contributing so valuable a
‘paper to its records.

(2) Tasmanian Onagraceae. By L. Rodway, Government
Botanist.

The author notes the circumstance that only two genera of
the family, Oenothera and Epilobium, are represented in Tas-
mania, and of the former only one species, which was found by
Ronald Gunn near Marlborough in 1841. He describes the
characteristic features of this plant, and of the six species of
Epilobium, and compares them with their representatives else-
where.

(3) The Speech of the Tasmanian Aborigines. By Hermann
B. Ritz, M.A.

The author says that from a careful examination of the
words and practically all the connected phrases recorded, the
Tasmanian language represents the most primitive form of
articulate speech, and he concludes that essentially there were
only two ideas expressed by the Tasmanian language, viz., rest
and motion. On this basis the whole vocabulary was probably:
constructed—except perhaps the purely onomato- -poetic sounds
—either directly or with the aid of simple metaphors. Some 600
words are quoted in support of this view, want of space and
time alone hindering the adduction of at least twice as many
additional examples.

After the reading of this paper, through the courtesy of Mr.
Horace Watson there were given on the ‘phonograph specimens
of the songs of the Aborigines sung into the instrument by the
late Mrs. Fanny Smith, a half-caste born and bred up at the
Settlement on Flinders Island among the Tasmanian Aborigines,

MUL ST 12) EVO).
The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at the
‘Museum on Monday evening, July 12, 1900.

Sir John S. Dodds, K.C.M.G,, Lieutenant-Governor, in the
-chair.

Vil.

ELECTION OF. FELLOWS.

Messrs. H. R. Hutchison and G. Weindorfer were elected:

Fellows of the Society.

HONORARY MEMBER.

On the recommendation of the Council Lieutenant (now Sir-
Ernest) Shackleton was elected an Honorary Member of the-

Society.

Mr. Stephens said that the office of Honorary Member was.

restricted by their rules to persons not resident in Tasmania
who had distinguished themselves as promoters of the objects

of the Society and other kindred institutions, and the Council:

were gratified on learning from the leaden of the recent Ant-

arctic exploration that it would give him great pleasure to be-

associated with an institution founded by Sir John Franklin.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE REHAD:

(t) Notes on the occurrence of a Fossil Tree embedded in
Drift on the North-West Coast of Tasmania. By T. Stephens,
M.A., F.G.S.

Vhe author describes the locality as being about hali-a-mile

east of the glacial drift previously describea as occupying the-

coast line between Woody Hill and Table Cape, and states that
further exploration would be required before the true relations
of this comparatively recent drift and the moraine matter farther

to the west could be positively determined. Specimens of the.

fossil wood, and of the drift in which it was embedded, were
laid on the table for the inspection of Fellows.

Mr. R. M. Johnston, in the course of the discussion which
followed, said that no other part of the world that he knew of
was so rich in the fossil remains of forests of past ages as iWals=
mania.

Dr. Noetling spoke of the opalised specimens of fossilised

wood, mentioning remarkable instances he had observed in:

India.

(2) Rocks used in the manufacture of Tronattas. By Fritz-

Noetling, M.A., Ph.D., etc.

The observations recorded in this paper are based on the
examination of more than 5,000 tronattas, but as the important
microscopical examination is still outstanding, the results are
considered as preliminary only. Four classes of rocks only
were used in the manufacture, viz., Chert or Hornstone, Porcel-

lanite, Breccia, and other silicious rocks such as Chalcedony, .

Wood-Opal, Fossil Wood, Quartz. Volcanic rocks were never
used except as hammerstones. Each class of rock is separately
described, and a large number of observations regarding the

specific gravity were made. The hornstone is the heaviest of—

ail, having an average spec. grav. of 2.678, and it could be
proved that 56.6 per cent. of the tronattas have a spec. grav.
above 2.600; that is to say, the Tasmanian stone implement is
considerably heavier than those found in Europe. A table of
frequency shows that on the average tronattas were made of

hornstone from 78.35 per cent., porcellanite following next with-

Vill.
¥1.03 per cent., while breccia and others form 4.78 per cent. and
-4.91 per cent. respectively.

Mr. R. M. Johnston emphasised the immense amount of
trouble that Dr. Noetling must have taken in preparing such
voluminous notes. His admirable classification of the Tas-
manian rocks used by’ the Aborigines would be most valuable
to members of the Society and students generally. The Society
was much indebted to Dr. Noetling.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. L. Rodway exhibited a branch of a black currant tree,
which carried the winter spores of a destructive disease to black
“current and gooseberry trees, called Nectria cinnibarina. ‘The
spores were distinctly visible. The summer spore, he said, is
‘called Tuberculana vulgaris, and appears in ochre-like nodules,
whilst the winter spore is in the form of bright red sacs.

AUGUST 49, 19009.

A special General Meeting of the Society was held, after due
notice, at the Museum on Monday evening, August 9, 1909.

Mr. Bernard Shaw, I.S.O., in the chair.

The Chairman stated that the meeting had been convened to
consider a recommendation from the Council that the last para-
graph of Rule 44 should be repealed, and explained that the
object of the proposed alteration of the rules was that in the
interval between the courses of the ordinary Monthly Meetings
of the Society an informal meeting or conversazione should be
held, attended by the Fellows and their friends, at which His
Excellency the President should be invited to address them on
any matters connected with the objects of the Society.

The motion for repeal was carried on the voices.
The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was then held.
Mr. Bernard Shaw, I.S.O., in the chair.

ELECTION OF FELLOWS.

Messrs. (Gland: Clerk and 3) ElyPearce, ands Wins: Rae
Fereday were elected Fellows of the Society.

THE FOLI,OWING PAPERS WERE READ:

(1) On the applications of Multenions to Metageometry. By
Professor Alex. McAulay, M.A.

In the absence of Professor McAulay, Mr. E. L. Piesse gave
a concise explanation of the purport of this paper, and said that
the researches in Multenions were a development of his previous
work on Quaternions and Octonions. The properties of Mul-
tenions were first described by Professor McAulay in a paper
read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1907-8, entitled
“ Algebra after Hamilton, or Multenions.’ The present paper
‘described the application of Multenions to non-Euclidean
Geometry.

Owing to the difficulty of printing some of the mathematical
characters used, it has not been possible to publish the paper
in the Proceedings of the Society.

DS,

(2) Notes on the Names given to Minerals and Rocks by
‘the Aborigines of Tasmania. By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.,
CG:

The author gives an elaborate description of all the sub-
stances of the nature of rocks that were known to or used by
the Aborigines, with a comparison of the various terms applied
to them by the several tribes, and the meaning of such terms.
He concludes by calling attention to the progress of the human
race since archaeolithic times, as exemplified by the thousands
of names by which modern science distinguishes the minerals
-and rocks found on our earth.

SEPTEMBER 13, Igo9.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, September 13. 1909.

Mr. Bernard Shaw, I.S.O., in the chair.

ELECTION OF FELLOWS.
Mr. Russell Young, jun., was elected a Fellow of the Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:

(1) A Contribution to the Geology of Tasmania—Systematic
Geology—The Pre-Cambrian. By L. Keith Ward, B.A., B.E.

The main object of the paper is to present a succinct ac-
‘count of the recent advances in the knowledge of the oldest
rocks developed in Tasmania, their stratigraphical relationships,
and their present physiographical features and distribution. The
evidence upon which a Pre-Cambrian age has been assigned to
the group is discussed. Some account of the lithological cha-
racters of the altered sediments is given, but the description of
the igneous members of the series awaits further more detailed
examination. The author notes the probability of the existence
of two different horizons, the upper of which shows a greater
freedom from contortion than does the lower, the two horizons
being separated by an unconformity. A brief account is given
oi the probable origin, growth, and decay of the Pre-Cambrian
rocks. The distribution of the rocks is indicated by an outline
map, with a short description of the known boundaries of the
areas in which these rocks outcrop. The nomenclature of Pre-
Cambrian rocks in extra-Australian areas is discussed, and it is
shown that the Tasmanian series belong to the Algonkian divi-
sion, although no more definite classification is justifiable.

Dr. Noetling said that the paper was a valuable contribution
to the literature of Tasmanian geology. All the rocks found on
the surface of the earth were divided into two periods—those
which had no fossil remains of creatures, and which were the
earlier rocks, and those which contained such remains, and
these two groups were again subdivided into different periods.
The Pre-Cambrian rocks belonged to that earlier period in
which there was no trace of life, and which must represent mil-
lions of years. When life first originated on the earth was not
yet decided. Mr. Ward dealt with the structural features of the

Pre-Cambrian system. Those rocks had a thickness of two.
miles. What enormous eras of time it must have taken to de-
posit such a depth of rock! Mr. Ward was inclined to think
that the present natural features of Tasmania were already out-
lined in the deposits of those Pre-Cambrian rocks. He (Dr.
Noetling) thought that was rather a bold theory. Mr. Ward:
had taken a great deal of trouble in describing these rocks.

Mr. R. M. Johnston, I.$.0., enlarged on the paper, and
stated that it was a very valuable one. It was believed that life
existed on the earth prior to’ the Cambrian period, though we
had no trace of it. The speaker dwelt on the very interesting:
enquiry of what has been the sequence of life on this earth.

Mr. T. Stephens said that Mr. Ward’s paper was a valuable
contribution to the geological literature not only\ of Tasmania
but of the whole Commonwealth, but it could only be discussed
in detail by those who had some personal knowledge of the
country described. Mr. Ward remarks that the term Pre-Cam-
brian 1s merely a temporary title, and that it is probable that
these rocks will eventually have to be subdivided into a number
of separate systems as in North America. As an instance of
one of the rocks specially mentioned in the paper, he called’
attention to the block of schistose conglomerate from Goat
Island, near Ulverstone, now on the table, which he had placed
in the Museum some two years ago, and which showed quartz
pebbles drawn out and twisted under intense pressure. Mr.
Stephens added that Mr. Ward’s remarks to the effect that the
diabase capping of most of the mountains of Tasmania was
once more widely distributed, and that “it postulates a cover
of sedimentary rocks since removed by sub-aerial denudation,”
will be welcomed by those who support the HEE put forward
by himseli in 1802.

Mr. Lyndhurst Giblin moved that the aiscussion of the paper
be adjourned until it had been printed, and after some debate
the motion was carried.

(2) Notes on Brachycome melanocarpa, Sonder. By WL.
Rodway.

The author describes this daisy, specimens of which were
placed on the table, and remarks that he had found it on the
eastern slopes of Mount Wellington. It had been found on the
mainland, but not prevaously in Tasmania.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. T. Stephens drew attention to a specimen of the fruit of
the Baobab tree, from the River Limpopo, South Africa, pre-
sented to the Museum by Miss Beatrice Adams. He said that
the Baobab tree was in girth the largest tree in the world, rang-
ing from 20 to 30 feet in diameter, but not lofty. The pulp of
the fruit was used for various medicinal purposes.

He also exhibited specimens of a black shaly rock contain-
ing graphite, which occurred in the bed of the River Kermandie,
beyond Geeveston, and had been forwarded by Mr. James
Thompson, of Hospital Bay. Whether it was pure enough to.
be of any commercial value has not yet been ascertained.

Rev. A. H. Mitchell exhibited a pebble of chalcedony with
one side polished, and showing beautiful concentric rings. It
was found at Bellerive.

OCTOBER 18, 1909.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, October 14, 1909.

Mr. R. M. Johnston, F.L.S., 1.S.0., in the chair.

Mr. T. Stephens (V.P.) reported that, in response to an in-
vitation from the Council, His Excellency the Governor (Sir
Harry Barron) had informed them that it would give him great
pleasure to assume the office of President of the Royal Society.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ:

Notes on the Glacial Beds of Freestone Bluff, near Wyn-
yard. By Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D., ete.

The author gives a historical summary of the papers which
had been previously written on this interesting and} important
subject, and describes in detail the glacial drift and the fossil-
iferous sandstone of Freestone Bluff, with remarks on the basalt
capping which overlies the latter. Attention is called to the
intermingling of what appear to be portions of the glacial drift
with the “fossiliferous sandstone, evidence of which is shown by
Plates illustrating the lowermost strata of Freestone Bluff. The
general conclusion arrived at is that there is no sufficient evi-
dence to prove that the glacial drift was deposited at or near
the base of the Permo-Carboniferous series, and that it really
belongs to the same epoch as the Turritella sandstone.

Mr. T. Stephens said that all who had any personal know-
ledge of the locality would be greatly interested in the new
theory that had been broached by Dr. Noetling as to the prob-
able contemporaneity of the glacial drift and the fossiliferous
sandstone. For his own part he did not yet see any reason to
modify the opinion expressed in a paper that had been quoted by
Dr. Noetling, to the effect that the “inlayers” of drift inter-
mingled with bands of the fossiliferous sandstone were really
moraine matter that had been dislodged from the surface of the
‘glacial drift and re-deposited at the time where the lower beds
of the sandstone formation were being laid down.

The Chairman, in complimenting Dr. Noetling on the inte-
resting and valuable paper read by him, stated that, notwith-
standing the new puzzle of the interstratification of the elements
of glacial erratics with what Dr. Noetling describes as “ small
lenticular layers of fossiliferous sandstones . . . undistinguishable
from the sandstones above’ (Turritella beds), he, Mr. Johnston,
was still firmly of opinion that the prevailing conglomerates,
unconformably underlying the Table Cape marine tertiaries,
were, as originally suggested by Mr. Stephens, of truly Permo-
Carboniferous age, and of the’ same horizon as the numerous
glacial drift conglomerates everywhere abounding in the lower

beds of that age in Tasmania, notably Brown’s River, Black-
mans’ Bay Heads (East Coast), Blackmans’ Bay (near Brown's
River), One Tree Point, North Bruny, and Lindisfarne. In the
Derwent, notably overlying the basalts at Lindisfarne, similar
conglomerates occur in lenticular patches among sandstones.
The most of the harder materials in these: sandstone con-
glomerates have been derived by disintegration and redistribu-
tion of the older glacial erratics of the adjacent Permo-Car-
boniferous rocks. He therefore inclined to the idea that the
reconciliation of apparently conflicting evidences at Table Cape
was to be found in accepting the hypothesis that two distinct
conglomerate formations containing glacial erratics occur at this
place. The older conglomerate is undoubtedly of Permo-Car-
boniferous age, the later conglomerate deriving the most of its
harder materials from the disintegration of the older glaciai
conglomerates either at the earlier stages of the formation of
the Tertiary Marine beds (Palaeogene), or towards its close.
Further evidence will be necessary before this last point can be
settled satisfactorily.

NOVEMBER 8, 1900.

The Monthly General Meeting of the Society was held at
the Museum on Monday evening, November 8, 1900.

Mr. Bernard Shaw, 1I.S.O., in the chair.
ELECTION OF FELLOW.
Mr. H. Stuart Dove was elected a Fellow of the Society.
THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ;

(1) Geological Notes on the country traversed by the Der-
went Valley Railway Extension. By T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S.

The paper gives a general description of the basaltic sheet
once extending continuously from Macquarie Plains to Glenora,
and the occurrence in it of one of the new railway cuttings of
masses of opal with traces of fossil wood. The intensely hard
and brittle character of the neighbouring diabase is noted, and
the evidence of its existence as an intrusive sill, or laccolite,
under the sandstone formation illustrated by a Plate. The pre-
sence of numerous erratics in the neighbourhood and along the
course of the new railway is mentioned, as affording evidence
of glacial action in not very remote times.

Dr. Noetling said that he had long suspected glacial action
in the Derwent Valley, and was glad to hear that such circum-
stantial evidence of it had been discovered.

Mr. Piesse remarked that other mountain ranges in Eastern
Tasmania, instancing Ben Lomond and its outliers. showed un-
mistakable evidence of glaciation, and hoped that the matter
would be more fully investigated.

(2) Points in the Morphology and Anatomy of certain Mega-
podes. By T. Thomson Flynn, B.Sc.

The author describes the results of his examination of speci-
mens of two genera represented by the Scrub Turkey and the
Mallee Fowl, and treats separately of the Pterylosis, or feather
arrangement, and the Myology of the hind limb. The paper is
illustrated by descriptive figures.

oie iC Ula COW 2 Or mE @iNAw AS:
GEIL Ia so als STILL.)

DVR NOEREING. NMVAL Irae Banc.

(Read 3rd May, 1909.)

As the Aborigines of Tasmania called their stone
implements “tronatta,’ I think it advisable to use this
word in preference to all others when speaking of them.
“Tronatta ” means a stone implement manufactured by
the Tasmanian Aborigines, and it does not bear on the
vexed question whether we have to consider these
amorpholitic implements as eolithes or as archaeolithes.
I may, however, add that I have no reason to alter the
conclusion arrived at in my first paper, read before the
Fellows of the Royal Society (1), viz., that the tronatta
represents the typical archaeolithic stage in the evolu-
tion of the stone implements, somewhat modified by a
considerable admixture of implements of eolithic cha-
Hacer:

Since I commenced these researches my collection
of tronattas has greatly increased. | also obtained a
large collection of oligocene, miocene, and diluvial
archaeolithes and eolithes from Belgium and France,
and this has enabled me to fix the position of the Tas-
manian tronattas somewhat more accurately in the
ladder of evolution.

In none of the collections that have been sent to me
are there specimens which in any way approach the high
finish of some of the tronattas. On the other hand, it
would be going too far to assume that those who kindly
sent me these specimens included in their collection
some highly finished ones, unless these were pretty
common. The well-finished tronattas are by no means
very common; I almost doubt whether they represent

(1) Notes on the Tasmanian Amorpholithes, Pap. and.
Proceed. Royal Soc. of Tas., 1906-1907, pag. 1-37.

2 A PECULIAR GROUP OF TRONATTAS.

more than 10 per cent. of the total, and the same ap-
plies very likely to the archaeolithes of Europe. Not
having obtained European archaeolithes of a high finish,
does not prove that they do not exist; however, if
they did exist, we might expect their figures in the
numerous pamphlets that have been. published up to
date on this subject. But ‘nere we search in vain. None
of the specimens that have been figured, and they most
probably do not represent the worst ones, come any-
where near to the highly finished tronatta of those
groups which have been classified as choppers, scrapers,
and knives. It therefore seems, that notwithstanding its
eolithic element, the Tasmanian stage represents “the
highest stage of the archaeolithic civilisation. If this
view be correct, we have at last gained that important
step which has already been made with regard to the
palaeolithic implements, viz., the beginning of a classi-
fication according to the skili shown in the finish of the
implements.

If the Tasmanian tronatta by its finish represents the
highest stage of archaeolithic civilisation, it is of great
importance to ascertain its distinguishing features. This
is, however, only possible by unceasing work. In the
following paper I wish to describe a small group of 1m-
plements which are of special interest, because they
seem to have been manufactured contrary to the com-
mon rule. Mr. R. M. Johnston was the first who re-
cognised the chief character of the tronatta. In his

“ Geology of Tasmania,” Mr. Johnston says, page 335,
as follows :—“ Whatever lack of symmetry they present
in facial outline, one of the faces is almost invariably
smooth and flattish, without marks of chipping. ... The
direction of the blows to produce the sharp, smooth, or
finely serrate edge appears to have been towards the
stone and away from the original flat face.”

No conciser characteristic of the tronatta could
given than this, and, though written in 1888, Herr
Klaatsch, who visited asain towards the end of 1906
and early in 1907, entirely disregards it, and proceeds
to give a description of the characteristics of the Tas-
manian implements, purporting to be his own, but prac-
tically exactly the same as that of Mr. Johnston. Con-
sidering that Herr Klaatsch did not devote more than a
fortnight to the study of the tronattas, and that his own

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 3

‘collection is far from being representative, his preten-
sion to give the scientific world the characteristics of
the Tasmanian stone implement is rather a bold one,
and it cannot be strongly enough emphasised that the
credit of having first defined the characteristic features
of the tronatta is due to Mr. R. M. Johnston, and not
to Herr Klaatsch (1).

I have subsequently somewhat enlarged on Mr.
Johnston's description, without, however, in any way
altering its main features. I have shown that the
smooth, flat face was the essential part of the imple-
ment, because it served as a rest for the thumb, and I
accordingly called it pollical face. I therefore gave Mr.
Johnston’s statement a somewhat different wording by
saying that the blows were directed away from the
pollical face towards the indical face (1). The Tasmanian
tronatta is therefore primarily an unsymmetrical imple-
ment, whose chipping is limited to one face only, viz.,
the indical face, which is opposite to the smooth, pollical
face.

The group of implements forming the subject of this
paper seems to be opposed to this rule, inasmuch as
marginal chipping can be observed on both faces. At the
first glance it may appear as if this class of implements
forms a true transitional stage to the symmetrical
palaeolithic implements wrought on both faces. More
closer examination will, however, prove that there is a
fundamental difference; though the marginal chipping
can be observed on the indical as well as on the pollical
face, it is always strictly limited to one face only—that
is to say, one and the same edge is either chi ipped on

(1) Though not quite so exhaustive as Mr. Johnston's, a de-
scription of the tronatta is given by Brough Smyth, Aborigines
ef Victoria, 1878, Vol. II., pag. 400 and 4oz, in which already
the essential features are recognised. To whomsoever we may
give the credit of having first recognised the characteristics of
the tronatta, to Mr. Noliaceen or to Brough Smyth, it is cer-
tainly not due to Herr Klaatsch, who oni repeats what others
have found out long before him. This may be somewhat strong
language, but is is fully justified by the circumstances.

(1) Inter lineas I may remark here that Herr Klaatsch abso-
lutely ignores this, though my paper was read nearly a year
before his own, and though I explained everything to him ver-
bally when he visited Hobart,

4 A PECULIAR GROUP OF TRONATTAS.

the indical or on the pollical face, but it is never chipped
on both faces at the same time. The fundamental dif-
ference from the palaeolithic implement, in which one
and the same edge is chipped on both faces, is obvious.

Another characteristic feature of these implements is
the flat, frequently smooth, indical face. In the majority
of the tronattas the indical face is strongly convex; in
this group it is quite flat—in fact it could be used as a
pollical face—and I believe this flatness accounts for the
marginal chipping not being strictly limited to the in-
dical face. I particularly wish to point out that not a
single specimen has come under notice which, having
the usual convex indical face, exhibits marginal chip-
ping on the pollical face. It is, therefore, evident, that
a flat indical face which could just as well serve as polli-
cal face was the essential condition for bi-faced mar-
ginal chipping.

This class of implements is very rare; I doubt
whether it represents even 1 per cent. of the total
number. In the large number of specimens I have
collected there were only about 4o in all.

The finest specimen (PI. I., fig. 1), was found at the
Old Beach, and is probably wique. It is a tronatta of
74% mm. length and 34 mm. breadth, weighing 480 ers.
It is broader in the middle than at both ends; the upper
one is sharply pointed, while the lower one is less so.
The largest breadth is considerably below half of the
length, and this gives it a peculiar leaf-shaped form,
particularly as the two lateral edges are slightly convex.
The pollical face, though smooth, is not quite flat, show-
ing the wrinkles peculiar to conchoidal fracture. The
indical face, though flat on the whole, is divided by a
somewhat irregular longitudinal ridge, which runs close
to the left side. The left edge shows the usual chipping
almost from point to point, but the right edge is only
chipped ot the lower half, and all working abruptly
ceases just above the middle of the length. On turning
to the pollical face, we see that the chipping exactly
commences at that point where it ceases on the indical
face, and continues to the end of the right lateral edge.
Now, as the chipping of the indical face was produced
by blows directed from the pollical face towards the in-
dical face, and that of the pollical face by blows directed
in the opposite way, the effect is rather a curious one-

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. © 5

Seen sideways, the right edge, instead of being straight,
as it would have been had the chipping been carried out
in one direction only, presents a peculiar broken line.

It is obvious that such a crooked edge cannot be of
the slightest use, for any purposes whatsoever, and it is
probably thanks to this error of the workman who
manufactured it that it was preserved. The question is,
how did this curious error—for error it must be—arise?
I think the rather flat indical face forms the key to the
solution of the problem. The Aborigine having finished
the trimming of the left edge, proceeded to take the
rmght edge in hand, and in doing so he inadvertently
turned the specimen over, and, without noticing it, com-
menced to chip from the indical face towards the pollical
face along the upper part of the right edge. Suddenly
he noticed his mistake, and he at once proceeded to
continue the trimming in the orthodox way—that is to
say, from the pollical face towards the indical face.

There is no other way of explaining this very
peculiar way of chipping, but it throws a flood of light
on the mental condition of the Aborigines. To our
modern mind it seems absolutely unintelligible why this
useless working edge should not have been turned into
an exceedingly sharp one by chipping away the indical
face of the upper and the pollical face of the lower part
of the right edge. The intelligence of the Tasmanian
could not conceive this idea. His mind lacked the in-
ventive genius which promotes progress. He had been
accustomed to trim his implements by blows from the
flat pollical face towards the the convex indical face, but
it never occurred to him to make an attempt in the
opposite direction, and even if he had inadvertently
Made wa mistake, le at Once rertinmed to! the time-
honoured fashion. Had he only continued the chipping
in either direction all along tne edge once the mistake
had been made, he would have found what a much
more efficient cutting edge he could produce by bi-faced
trimming. But he did not do so, and it is almost pathetic
to think that here we have a specimen which might have
led to the manufacture of more efficient implements,
and thus perhaps changed the fate of the whole race, had
this most simple invention been made. As it has not
been made, it proves that those inventions, which appear
to us so simple that we are accustomed to take them as

6 A PECULIAR GROUP OF TRONATTAS.

a matter of fact, which did not require an inventive
genius at all, were probably the most difficult to make,
and that it required a real genius to lead mankind from
the low archaeolithic to the higher palaeolithic stage.

Pl. I., fig. 2, a specimen from Melton Mowbray,
measures 75 mm. in length; the breadth at the butt end
is 37 mm., at the opposite end 54 mm., and its greatest
thickness is 13 mm. The weight is 1,210 gers. (2%
ounces). The lateral edges are straight, the broader
edge curved, the narrower edge nearly straight. Its
shape is trapezoidal, and, being broader at one end than
at the other, and rather thin, it imitates in a way an axe-
head. This similarity is considerably increased by the
broader end being well chipped. We know, however,
that the Aborigines did not possess axes provided with
a handle, and it would be absurd to designate this
tronatta as an axe-head. On the other ihand, it is easy
to see how such mistaken identifications can arise. If
we knew absolutely nothing about the Aborigines, a
specimen like this would without question have been
declared an axe-head, though it might perhaps re-
mained a puzzle why not only the cutting but also one
of the longitudinal edges was sharpened. In this in-
stance we know better, but the lesson with regard to
the interpretation of European archaeolithes is obvious.

The pollical face is smooth and flat, but at the butt
end it shows a large bulb of percussion. The right edge
is almost for its whole length well chipped on the pollical
face. The indical face is almost flat, and the edge of the
broader end, which is slightly curved, is neatly and care-
fully chipped. The chipping extends even somewhat to
the left lateral edge, but it does not extend far enough
as to join on to the chipping of the pollical face, though
it is easy to see that the result would have been the same
as in the former specimen.

Pl. IL., fig. 1, a specimen from Mona Vale, measures
115 mm. in length, and has a greatest breadth of 59
mm., weighing 4 ounces. At its thickest part it
measures 19 mm., but for the greater part the thickness
is not more than 9 mm., and even comes down to 3:
mm. at one end.

The general shape is irregularly rhomboidal; one
lateral edge is almost straight, and that next to it
concave. The pollical face is smooth and flat, and the

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. Tf

right edge is well chipped ail along. The indical face,
thougin not quite so smooth as the former, is well
chipped along the concave edge. The junction of the
two chipped edges forms a rather sharp point, but again
the chipping of both faces fails to join.

Pl. IIL, fig. 1, a specimen trom Maryvale, measures
57 X 57 mm.; its greatest thickness does not exceed 14
Mint icmMeInniny 161.082. orsy(2t)t.2) ounces). eile
general shape is nearly rhombical; two sides (the butt
and opposite end) being nearly straight, the other two
sides concave. The pollical face is very smooth and
flat, the wrinkles of percussion being just visible. Ii we
take the butt as the upper end (1) the right edge is well
chipped, and deeply concave on the pollical face. Tihe
indical face is almost as flat as the former, but three
edges are chipped—the butt edge, which has been par-
ticularly carefully trimmed, and the right lateral edge,
which is again deeply concave.

Pl. IIL, fig. 2, a specimen from Shene, measures 71
mm. in length, and, though its greatest breadth is 44
mim., for ‘the greater part of its length it is under 35 mm.
The thickness does not exceed 9 mm., and the weight 1s
520 gers. (1 1-5 ounces). The general shape is elongated,
broader at the butt end, one of the lateral edges
straight (or even slightly convex), the other slightly
concave. According to its shape, it seems well suitable
for a knife or a scraper. The pollical face is flat and
smooth, the wrinkles of percussion are slightly marked.
Its left edge is concave, and well chipped along its
whole length. The indical face is fairly smooth, but
there are few longitudinal ridges as the result of flaking.
The left edge very carefully trimmed.

Pl. Ill., fig. 3, a specimen from the mouth of the
Coal River, is somewhat similar in shape to the former.
It measures 58 mm. in length, and has an average
breadth of 28 mm., though at one part it reaches 37 mm.
The thickness is 9 mm., and its weight 365 ers. Its
shape is elongated, straight at the butt end, rounded off
at the opposite end. One lateral edge is straight, the

(1) I always place the specimens in such a way that the butt
end represents the upper end, because it is certain that, having
received the blow, it was nearest to the workman—that is to
Say, uppermost in its original position at the parent block.

8 A PECULIAR GROUP OF TRONATTAS.

other undulating, showing a broad, short prominence,
on either side of which it is concave. The pollical face
is smooth and flat, and its left edge is well chipped all
along its length. The indical face is smooth, but a very
conspicuous longitudinal ridge runs somewhat closer to
the left edge, which is very carefully chipped; the chip-
pings extend also over the rounded-off ends, but un-
fortunately the specimen is just at that point damaged
where indical and pollical chipping would join.

These specimens are sufficient to illustrate the
peculiar feature of this group, which in my opinion 1s,
however, not intentional. As already pointed out, bi-
faced marginal trimming is only observed when the in-
dical face is almost as ‘smooth and flat as the pollical
face. This seems to indicate that when a flake was
obtained whose two faces were flat, and could therefore
indiscriminately be used as the pollical face, the Abori-
gines made the most of it, and usea both accordingly.

It is very interesting to note that similar specimens
have been found in Europe. Amongst a collection of
eolithes from the Mesvinien of Belgium, which has been
sent to me by Dr. Rutot, of Bruxelles, I found several
specimens which were used on both faces. These speci-
mens exhibit the same feature as the Tasmanian tron-
attas, namely, a smooth and flat indical face, which
-could conveniently be used as a rest for the thumb. They
are apparently more frequent among the European
eolithes than among the Tasmanian tronattas, but
whether this is the result of flint producing more easily
two flat faces when broken than the Tasmanian horn-
stone (trona or mora trona), | am unable to say for
the present. We might perhaps consider these imple-
ments as archaistic remnants from the times when the
art of working pieces of siliceous stone was still in its
very infancy. Anything to save trouble—and the shap-
ing of a tronatta was by no means an easy matter (teste
Scott !)—was resorted to, and if a flake was obtained
which had two pollical faces, so to speak, it was used
as long as possible.

I consider this merely a suggestion, as I am well
aware that further proof would be required before this
view could be further discussed.

Roy. Soc. TAsm . 1909 PL. I.

FIG. 16. . FIG AC.

Figs 1—Indical Face. Fiz. 1a—Pollical Face, Figs, 1p and lc—Side Views.
Fig. 2—Indical Face. Fig. 2A—Pollical Face

Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1909. : Pv. Il.

Fig. 1—Pollical Face. Fig. 1a—Indical Face.

Pi.

~ Roy. Soc. Tas., 1909

Figs. 1a, 2a, 3A—Pollical Faces.

Figs. 1, 2, 3—Indical Face,

-RECORDS OF TASMANIAN BOLANTSUS:
Bveujey lds; MAIDENS iE: S:

Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic
Gardens, Sydney.

‘ Corresponding Member.

(Read May 3rd, 1909.)

I have used the term “botanists”? in a somewhat
wide sense, having included collectors of note, whether
they described their finds or not, notable horticul-
turists, and, in my general list (5), botanists who have
described Australian plants whether they visited this
land or not. I have included no living man, so far as I
-am aware.

Some notes on South Australian botanists will be
found in (4), of New South Wales ones in (5), and I am
taking steps to publish my notes on the botanists of
other Australian States in their respective States.

It will be seen how imperfect is the record of some
who have worked amongst us, and who have not been
removed by the hand of death very long.

Records of departed botanists form a branch of Aus-
tralian history of practical value to working botanists.
They afford a guide to their published works, and indi-
cate where their observations were made.

The lists of species named after the various botanists
and collectors are valuable (so I have often found) ior
tracing particulars of botanical journeys, biographical
notes, and other useful information.

Sie Gi BiB Li@GRAE EY:

Bailey, F.M.—‘“‘ A Concise History of Australian
Botany,” “ Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland, viii. Quoted

-as ([).

IO RECORDS OF TASMANIAN, BOTANISTS.

Hooker, J. D.—“ Introductory Essay to the Flora
of Tasmania,” cxii.-cxxvill. (“Outlines of the progress of
Botanical discovery in Australia”). Quoted as (2).

Maiden, J.H.— Address of the President, Section D,
Biology, Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science, Adelaide Meeting, 1907. Contains biogra-
phical notices of South Australian and some other
botanists. Quoted as (4).

“Records of Australian Botanists—(a) General, (b)
New South Wales.” (Proc. Roy. Soc.,” N.S.W,. xlit.,.
1908.) Quoted as (5).

“Records of Victorian Botanists @ Vact. Nate
1908, p. 101-117. Quoted as (8).

“Records of Western Australian Botanists
(Journ. W.A. Nat. Hist., 1909.”) Qtoted as (Q).

Britten and Boulger.—“ British and Irish Botanists.”

Quoted as (6).

Mennell, Philip—‘ The Dictionary of Australian
Biography from the Inauguration of Responsible Go-
vernment down to the Present Time” (1855-1892).
London, 1892. Quoted as (7).

ABBOTT, FRANCIS, Jr. (4834-1903).

Born at Derby, England, 18th June, 1834; died at
Hobart, 22nd November, 1903. Buried at Cornelian
Bay Cemetery.

He was appointed Superintendent of Botanical Gar-
dens, Hobart, 8th December, 1859, and was connected
with them from the age of 17, having been apprenticed
to his predecessor, F. W. Newman.

He was a genial, kindly man, full of practical know-
ledge, never more happy than when he was imparting it
_ to others.

He was the author of the following papers in the
Journal of this Society:—‘ The Sugar Beet,” 1871, p.
31; “ Thistles,” 1878, p. 73; “ Wild or Canadian Rice
(Zizania aquatica),” 1878, p. 73; “ Notes on New Plants.
introduced into the Royal Society’s Gardens during”
1883,” 1883, p. 186; “ Notes on a Recent Case of Poison-

BY J. H. MAIDEN, P.L.S. Teh

ing caused by the Exhalation of Rhus radicans (Toxi-
codendron) at the Botanical Gardens, Hobart,” 1886, p.
182; “ Smut in Wheat,” 1880, p. 95.

ANDERSON, WILLIAM (¢ 1778.)

Died 3rd August, 1778, off the coast of Russian Asia,
and an island sighted shorily after his death was named
Anderson’s Island. Cook says of him:—* He was a
sensible young man, an agreeable companion, well
skilled in his profession, and had acquired much know-
ledge in other sciences.”

fle was Surgeon of H.M_S. ~ Resolution,” Cook's
Third Voyage, and also acted as Naturalist. Quoted by
Cook, eg, im regard to Adventure Bay (Vasmania)
plants in his “A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean,” ete. 3rd
Edition, 1795, pp. 106-8.

See R. Brown's “ Prod. Florae Novae Hollandiae,”

p- 409, where his descriptions of plants in Cat. Banksian
Library (Moli2.ip 52 and Viol 250. 1o4)acemtereihed
to. In his MSS. he described various genera, e.g.,
; Collema ” (Goodenia, Sims), > Euphocarpus’ * (Correa,
Sm.); “ Ramsaia’”’ (Bauera, Banks); “ Aromadendrum ”
(Eucalyptus, L’Herit.).

He is commemorated-in “ Andersonia sprenge-
loides,’ R. Br.—‘‘Sprengelia Andersoni,” F. v. M.
Brown says his genus not only commemorates William
Anderson, but also Alexander Anderson, of the Botanic
Gardens, St. Vincent.

ARCHER, WILLIAM (1820-1874).

Born at Launceston, Tasmania, 16th May, 1820;
died at Fairfield, near Longford, Tasmania, 14th Octo-
ber, 1874; was educated at a school at Longford, and
afterwards went to England, where he qualified as an
architect, and, returning, practised in Tasmania.

He was elected a member of the first Legislature of
Tasmania in 1851, and on his return from a second
sojourn in England in 1860, became a member of Mr.
Weston’s Ministry. He also twice represented Devon
in the Assembly. On the death of his father he came

12 RECORDS OF TASMANIAN ‘BOTANISTS.

into possession of Cheshunt, Deloraine, named after the
town in Hertfordshire, whence the Archers emigrated
early in the last century. Cumming’s Head is the moun-
tain overlooking the Cheshunt Estate, and is often
quoted in Archer’s plant-labels.

In 1860 he succeeded Dr. Milligan as Secretary of
the Royal Society of Tasmania, and held that office for
two years.

“Tt remains only to mention my friend, William Archer,
Esq., F.L.S., of Cheshunt, who, after a residence of upwards
of ten years in Tasmania, during which he sedulously investi-
gated the botany of the district surrounding his property, re-
turned to England, 1857, with an excellent herbarium, copious
notes, analyses, and drawings, and a fund of accurate informa-
tion on the vegetation of his nlative island, which have been
unreservedly placed at my disposal.” (2)

And, again—

“T received the most encouraging assistance from my
friend, William Archer, Esq., of Cheshunt, Tasmania, who for-
‘warded to me a beautiful series of drawings of ‘Tasmanian
Orchids, together with £100 to be expended on the Flora, and
he soon afterwards arrived in England, and rendered me still
more valuable aid by his observations and collections, which is

duly acknowledged in the body of this work .... adding 30
plates, including 60 species, chiefly of Orchideae (of many of
which Mr. Archer had prepared the drawings). (2)

Hooker dedicates his “Tasmanian Flora ” conjointly
to Gunn and Archer, which 1s excellent testimony to the
value of the latter’s services in the elucidation of Tas-
manian plants.

His papers in this Journal include :—‘‘ Observations
upon the Plants which are characteristic of Agricultural,
Pasturable, and Bad Lands respectively in Tasmania,”
1864, p. 96; “Notes on an Excursion to Cumming’s
Head and the Falls of the Meander, on the Western
Mountains, Dasmania.’ ~ lib.” 1870, pe545) Notestom

the Californian Thistle,” 1870, p. 70. -

He is commemorated by the following plants :—
Psoralea Archeri, F. v. M.; Mitrasacme Archeri, Hook.
f.; Plantago Archeri, Hook. f?; Diselma Archer,
Hook. £: Prasophyllum Archeri, Hlook, £; Carex
Archeri, Boott.—C. acicularis, Boott.; Danthonia Ar-
cheri, Hook. f—?; Dianella Archeri, Hook. f—?.

IT am much indebted for information furnished by his
son, Mr. Waiter K. Archer.

BY J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. 13
BACKHOUSE, JAMES (17094-1869).

An admirable observer, who botanised in most of the
Australian colonies, 1838-41, and spent much time in
Tasmania. He belonged to the Society of Friends, and
was a philanthropist engaged on a religious mission,

See (5).

BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858).

The “~ Prince of Australian Botanists.” I have dealt:
with him briefly at (5), and much fuller in my “ Life of
Sir Joseph Banks.” He botanised much in Tasmania,
and will for ever be identified with her flora.

CALEY, GEORGE (? 1775-1829).

He was in Tasmania in 1805, and in New South
Wales, 1800-1810. He was a protege of Sir Joseph
Banks. See (5), also my “ Life of Sir Joseph Banks.”

DAVIES RICHARD El. ( ye

“The Rev. (sic) Richard H. Davies has discovered
many curious and some new plants on the East Coast.
of Tasmania since the year 1833, which were communi-
Catedutom Vis Anchen,

Richard Davies was brottier of Archdeacon Davies..
He contributed papers to the Royal Society, Tasmania,.
on the Natural History of the Mutton Birds, on the
Aborigines of Van Diemen’s Land, anc the Rapacity of
Tasmanian fish.

The following plant, Phebalium Daviesi, Hook. f—
P. glandulosum, Hook. var. (?) Daviesi was collected by
R. H. Davies, Esq., Herb. Archer, on the East Coast,
Meat OF blelens Bay. Seeidookery Hi Was. 11, 258:

EWING, REV. T. J. ( ).

Of Hobart. He wrote papers on Statistics and
Zoology (birds and insects) in the “ Tasmanian Journal,”
Vols. i. and ii., and “* Papers and Proceedings” of this.
Society, Vol. iii.

4 RECORDS OF TASMANIAN BOTANISTS.

He gave attention to the native vegetation, and
wrote on the large trees of Tasmania. He also collected
Algae assiduously for Harvey, and Acanthococcus
Ewingii, named by Harvey in his honour, was figured in
the “ Phycologia Australica.”

FEREDAY, REV. JOHN (1813-1871).

Born 8th November, 1813, at the Ellowes, Stafford-
shire, England; died George Town, Tasmania, 8th April,
1871. He was Master of Arts and Fellow of Worcester
College, Oxford.

“The Rev. Mr. Fereday, the Episcopalian Clergyman at
George Town, Tasmania, an enthusiastic lover of natural his-
tory, especially of algae. He had a boat and dredge, and at
once volunteered himself as a firm ally and assistant.”
(“ Memoir of W. H. Harvey,” p. 282, 1854.)

Harvey dedicated the 4th volume of his “ Phycologia
Australica”’ to Mr. Fereday in the following graceful
eas e—

“To the Rev. John’ Fereday, M.A., of George Town, Tas-
mania, who has cultivated several branches of natural history,
and to Mrs. Fereday, an accomplished and successful collector
of algae, the fourth volume of the ** Phycologia Australica” is
inscribed in grateful memory of many kindnesses conferred on
the author during his stay at George Town.”

In the preface to Vol. 5, Harvey says :—

“ During my residence at George Town, Tasmania, the Rev.
J. Fereday rendered me the most efficient aid in prosecuting my
researches. His boat and strong arm were almost daily at my
service, and many thousands of specimens were collected under
his auspices. He knew all the best localities on the Tamar,
and was continually my guide to them. Without his able
guidance and active assistance my visit to George Town would
have proved comparatively unfruitful, instead of yielding me a
rich harvest of specimens. To Mrs. Fereday I am indebted
for many beautifully preserved specimens, and for aid in “ laying
out” and drying the tubsful of delicate algae which we almost
daily brought home.”

Samuel Hannaford (See p. 10), himself also a
student of Algae, describes in his ‘“ Wild Flowers of
Tasmania,” pp. 75 and 85, a visit to Mr. Fereday, on
which they botanised together.

Harvey figured the following plants in his “* Phyco-
logia Australica ” :—

Cladophora Feredayi, Harv.; Dasya Feredaye.

Harv.

BY J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. 165)

I am indebted to Mr.‘ Fereday’s daughter, Mrs.
Brewer, of Corowa, N.S.W., for some personal notes
‘concerning her father.

GUNN, RONALD CAMPBELL (1808-1881).

Born at Cape Town, 4th April, 1808; arrived in Tas-
mania, 1829, died at Newstead, Launceston, Tasmania,
13th March, 1881.

Asa child was at the capture of Mauritius and Bour-
bon with his father, whose regiment was afterwards at
the Cape until the peace after Waterloo, when it was
ordered to Barbadoes. R. C. Gunn was noted for a
commission in the army, but eventually sailed for Tas-
mania in 1829. In 1830 he was appointed Superinten-
dent of convicts for North Tasmania, in 1833 placed in
the Commission of the Peace, and in 1836 was appointed
Police Magistrate at Circular Head.

From Circular Head he made an expedition to the
mainland, visiting Port Phillip, Western Port, and Port
Fairy. In 1838 he was appointed Assistant Police
Magistrate at Hobart Town, and in the following year
Private Secretary to Sir John Franklin, and Clerk of the
Executive and Legislative Councils. In 1841 he re-
signed these appointments to take charge of the estates
of Mr. W. E. Lawrence, of Formosa, and subsequently
spent most of his spare time in exploring the unsettled
districts, and reporting on the flora of Tasmania. He
represented the Northern districts in the Legislative
Council and the House of Assembly, and was engaged
by the Government in various exploratory expeditions
for investigating the natural products and resources of
pes Sbaben!

In 1864 he was appointed one of the Commissioners
for selecting the seat of Government in New Zealand.

“ Ronald Campbell Gunn, Esq., F.R.S. and F.L.S., to whose
labours the Flora of Tasmania is so largely indebted, was the
friend and companion of the late Mr. Lawrence, from whom
he imbibed his love of botany. Between 1832 and 1850 Mr.
Gunn collected indefatigably over a great portion of Tasmania,
but especially at Circular Head, Emu Bay, Rocky Cape, the
Asbestos and Hampshire Hills, Western Mountains, Flinders
and other islands in Bass’ Strait, the East Coast, the whole
valley of the Derwent, from its sources to Recherche, the lake
districts of St. Clair, Echo, Arthur’s Lakes, and the country

16 RECORDS OF TASMANIAN BOTANISTS.

west of them to Macquarie Harbour, and the Franklin and
Huon Rivers. There are few Tasmanian plants that Mr. Gunn
has not seen alive, noted their habits in a living state, and col-
lected large suites of specimens with singular tact and judgment.
These have all been transmitted to England in perfect preserva-
tion, and are accompanied with notes that display remarkable
powers of observation, and a facility for seizing important
characters in the physiognomy of plants such as few experienced
botanists possess. I had the pleasure of making Mr. Gunn’s
acquaintance at Hobarton in 1840, and am indebted to him for
nearly all I know of the vegetation of the districts I then
visited, for we either studied together in the field or in the
library, or when he could not accompany me himself he directed
one of his servants, who was an experienced guide—a plant-
collector—to accompany me and take charge of my specimens.
I can recall no happier weeks of my various wanderings over
the globe than those spent with Mr. Gunn collecting in the
Tasmanian mountains and forests, or studying our plants in his
library, with the works of our predecessors, Labillardiere and
Brown.

“Mr. Gunn made a short visit to Port Phillip and Wilson’s
Promontory, and collected largely, noting all the differences

between the vegetation of the opposite shores of Bass’ Straits.”
(2)

Hooker dedicated his Tasmanian flora conjointly to
Gunn and Archer.

He was the most eminent botanist of Tasmania. His
collections are widely diffused, and his neat handwriting,
giving all the necessary details, is known to all Austra-
lian botanists who give aitention to the history of Aus-
tralian botany. I make no apology for giving details of
his collecting grounds and other information concerning
him. He corresponded regularly with Sir Joseph
Hooker at Kew, and with Mueller, and all notable Aus-
tralian botanists of his time.

“ He corresponded with Sir William Hooker, sending plants
to Kew, and with Dr. J. E. Gray, to whom he forwarded a
series of mammals, birds, reptiles, and mollusca for the Natural
History Museum. He helped to form the Royal Society of
Tasmania. There is at Kew a coloured crayon drawing of him,
artist uncertain. Bust, face three-quarters to the right; 14™%4in.
by 1o%4in.” (‘“ Kew Catalogue of Portraits of Botanists,” 1906,
p. 56.)

Pele Se18s507 FP ReS. esas Res Canines 75. sous
Bota lee, 102; Procy Jeon) SOtmmcol-2 aoc
Lasegue, 283; Hooker, “Flora Tasmania,” CXxv.,;
“ Proc. R. Soc.,” xxxiv. (1883), xiii. ; “ Dict. Nat. Biog.,”
XXiil., 342 (6).

s BY J. Ho MAIDEN, E.L-S. 17

For a brief biography of him see (7). See also “ Ann.
Nat. Elist.,” 1, ror (1838), also ~The Botany of the
Antarctic Voyage,” [by J. Hooker (a review).—Richea
pandanai folia] (* Tasm. Journal Sc.,” i1.), Launceston,
1846. See also the list of his papers in the “ Tas. Journ.
and, Proc) Roy. soc. mas. in Morton's INeesister, 1887:

Harvey dedicated the 5th Volume of his ** Phycologia
Australica” to him in the following terms :—

“To Ronald Campbell Gunn, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S., of Laun-
ceston, Tasmania, who, with his accustomed liberality, placed
at the author’s disposal the whole of his rich collections of
Tasmanian algae, this concluding volume of the “ Phycologia

Australica’ is gratefully and respectfully inscribed by his
friend, W. H. Harvey.”

In the Preface to Vol. 5, Harvey also says :—

“Ronald C. Gunn, Esq., F.R.S., whose name is indelibly
associated with the botany of Tasmania, has largely assisted
me in this work. From him came the earliest collections of
Australian algae, which, through the kindness of Sir W. J.
Hooker, fell under my notice. Many new species are of his
discovery; to him is also due the re-discovery of Claudea
elegans; and to him I am not only indebted for the freest use
of his personal collections, but for multitudes of duplicate
specimens; and figured Nitophyllum Gunnianum, Harv., in his
“ Phycologia Australica.”

He is commemorated by the genus Gunnia, and also
by the following species :—

Boronia Gunnii, Hook.—Boronia pinuata, Sm. var.
Gunni; Cryptandra Gunnu, Hook. f—Spyridium Gunniu,
Benth.; Lasiopetalum ‘Gunnii, Steetz—L. dasyphyllum,
Sieb.; Ranunculus Gunnianus, Hook.; Stackhousia
Gunnianus, Schlecht.; and Stackhousia Gunnii, Hook.,
f., both—S. monogyna, Labill.; Tetratheca Gunnii,
Hook. f—=T. pilosa, Labill. var. (?) procumbens; Acacia
Gunnii, Benth.—A. vomeriformis, A. Cunn.; Desmodium
Gunnii, Hook. {—D. varians, Endl. var. Gunnii; Halo-
ragis Gunnii, Hook. f—H. teucriodes, A. Gray; Psor-
alea Gunnii, Hook. i.—-P. adscendens, F. v. M.; Pulte-
naea Gunnii, Benth.; Rubus Gunnianus, Hook.; Ayic-
pappus Gunnu, Hook.f.—Erigeron pappochroma, Labill.
var. Gunnii; Asperula Gunnii, Hook. f.; Emphysopus
Gunnii, Hook. f—Lagenophora emphysopus, Hook. f.;
Erechtites Gunnii, Hook. f=E. quadridentata, D.C. var.
Gunnii; Erigeron Gunnii, Hook. f—E. pappochroma,
Labill. var. Gunnii; Eucalyptus Gunnii, Hook. f.;

’

18 ‘RECORDS OF TASMANIAN BOTANISTS.

Eucalyptus Gunnii, Miq.—(?); Eucalyptus Gunnii, F. v.
M.—E. Stuartiana, F. v. M. (as formerly understood) ;
Eurybia Gunniana, D.C. Olearia stellulata, D.C.;
Helichrysum Gunnii, Hook. fH. scopioides, Labill. ;
Lagenophora Gunniana, Steetz=. Huegelii, Benth.;
Melaleuca Gunniana, Schau.—M. ericifolia, Sm.; Ozo-
thamnus Gunnii, Hook. f=-Helichrysum Gunn, F’. v.
M.; Panax Gunnii, Hook. f.; Tetrapora Gunniana, Miq.
—Baeckea Gunniana, Schau.; Decaspora Gunnii, Hook.
f—Trochocarpa Gunnii, Benth.; Epacris Gunni, Hook.
f—E. microphylla, R. Br. var. Gunnii; Limanthemum
Gunnii, Hook. f—Liparophyllum ‘'Gunnii, Hook. £;
Richea Gunnii, Hook, f.; Veronica Gunnii, Benth —V.
calycina, R. Br.; Villarsia Gunnii, Hook. f—Liparo-
phyllum Gunnii, Hook. f.; Banksia Gunnii, Meissn—B.
marginata, Cav.; Muhlenbeckia Gunnii, Hook. f=—M.
adpressa, Meissn. var. hastifolia, Meissn.; Persoonia
Gunnii, Hook. f.; Plantago Gunnii, Hook. f.; Caladenia
Gunnii, Reichb.—Chiloglottis Gunni, Lindl.; Callitris
Gunnii, Hook. f—Frenela Gunnii, Endl—F. australis,
R. Br.: Casuarina Gunnii, Hook. i.—C. stricta, Ait. ;
Fagus Gunnii, Hook. f.; Phyllanthus Gunnii, Hook. f.;
Pimelea ‘Gunnii, Hook. f—P. cinerea, R. Br.; Sarco-
chilus Gunnii, F. v. M.—S. parviflorus, Lindl.; Aphelia
Gunnii, Hook. f.—A. gracilis, Sond.; Carex Gunniana,
Boott.; Cladium Gunnii, Hook. f.; Cyperus Gunnu,
Hook. f.; Danthonia Gunniana, Nees—-D. racemosa, R.
Br. var. pencillata; Echinopogon Gunnianus, Nees
Deyeuxia Gunniana, Benth.; Hymenophyllum Gunnu,
Bosch.—H. rarum, Br.; Isoetes Gunnii, A. Br—(?);
Isolepis Gunnii, Steud.=-Scirpus inundatus, Spreng. ;
Juncus Gunnii, Hook. f£—(?); Lepidosperma Gunnin
Beeckel==L. lineare, R. Br.; Microleena Gunnii, Hook.
{=I stipoides, Ru iBrs Scigpus) Gunnit,) Beccles:
cartilagineus, Spreng. var. alpina.

HANNAFORD, SAMUEL (1828-1874).

Victorian and Tasmanian botanist. Resident both
oof Launceston and Hobart. Born at Totnes, Devon-
shire; died at Hobart, 3rd January, 1874.

He emigrated to Melbourne in 1853; became at once
an honorary coadjutor of Mueller in Victorian botany.
He resided in Warrnambool in 1855 and 1856, then re-

BY J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. Ig

moved to Geelong till 1863. For a time he edited the
“ Victorian Agricultural and Horticultural Gazette.” He
ibecame editor of the “ Launceston Times,” and in 1868
removed to Hobart. In 1870 he was librarian of the
Public Library there. :

He industriously botanised for nearly the whole of
his residence in Australia, sending largely to Mueller.
Some of his specimens have fallen into my hands, and
the labels show him to be most neat in his methods and
scientifically accurate in his details. Mueller named the
genus Hannafordia (Sterculiaceae) after him.

He co-operated with the Rev. John Fereday in col-
leche alsdersar une whaman kleads, \lasmania,. 10%
Harvey, who in his “Phycologia Australica” figured
Ptilota (?) Hannafordi, Harv.

He published four works—viz., “ Flora Tottoniensis
—F lowering plants and ferns .. . of Totnes” (Totnes,
1851); ~“ Jottings in Australia, or Notes on the Flora
aim@l Isatibag, Cn Wieioie ~~) (Kes) = Sez) chal) Runveresile
Rambles ” (1860); “ The Wild Flowers of Tasmania, or
‘Chatty Rambles Afloat and Ashore Amidst the Sea-
weeds, Ferns, and Flowering Plants, with a Complete
List of Indigenous Ferns and Instructions for their

‘Cultivation ” (8vo., pp. 188, 1866).

The last three works were published in Melbourne.

See also (7).

TBUNIRIRUAE, JB, ODS ( Ne

There is a paper by him entitled “ Observations on
Desmidiaceae; with a List of Species found in Tas-
mania” (this Journ., 1868, p. 19). There is also a paper
oon Fluke, and another on Phyllactidum, in the 1869
volume. I know nothing further of this botanist.

HARVEY, WILLIAM HENRY (1811-1866).

The celebrated Algologist, who visited Tasmania in
1855. There are papers by him on the Algae of Tas-
‘mania in ““ Tasm. Journ. i1., 377, 421 (1846), and 111. 54,
153, 209 (1849). ;

I have dealt with his work at some length in (5).

20 RECORDS OF TASMANIAN BOTANISTS.
JEANNBERETY, Dr. ( p):

He is spoken of in 1849 as “late Superintendent of
the Aborigines’ (see Blue-book, “ Papers relative to
Crown Lands fn the Australian Colonies,” Part i1.,

1851).

Resided at one time at Port Arthur. Harvey speaks
of having received from him a number of interesting
Algae and the genus Jeannarettia, Hook. sls Sts Harv.
was dedicated Ho him. See Harvey’s “Nereis Aus-
tralis.”

Harvey also speaks of him as “an investigator of
the botany of Tasmania,’ and figures in his “ Phyco-
logia Australica,” Jeannerettia lobata, Hook. f., and
Harv. and Ptilota Jeanerettii, Harv.

LABILLARDIERE, JACQUES JULIEN HOUTEN
de (1755-1834).

He was botanist to the ex nadir ji in search of La
Perouse in command of Captain d’Entrecasteaux, whose
ships were the “ Recherche” and ~ L’Esperance. es vikelG
was in Tasmania in 1792, and many Tasmanian plants
were figured in his ** Nove Hollandize plantarum speci-
men”’ (Paris, 1804-06).

It is my intention to publish a separate account of
the B rench botanists who advanced Australian botany.

LAWRENCE, ROBERT WILLIAM (2807-1833).

Died at Formosa, Tasmania, on 18th October, 1833,
aged 26 years (the anniversary of his birth).

‘He led me (Gunn) to commence the study of
botany.” J. G. Robertson, who was manager of For-
mosa (see 8) was doubtless influenced in his botanical
studies by Lawrence.

“In 1826 Mr. Robert William Lawrence, a settler in Tas-
mania, commenced exploring the northern parts of that island
and forming collections, which were communicated to Sir W.
Hooker up till 1832, when he died. Some of these plants were
published in the ‘Companion to the Botanical Magazine,’
‘Journal of Botany,’ *Icones Plantarum, and elsewhere.” (2)

BY-J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. 21

See “ Contributions Towards a Flora of Van Die-
men’s Land, from Collections sent by R. W. Lawrence,
Ronald Gunn, and Thomas Scott, Esqs.” (‘ Comp.
Bot, Mag’ or) 272) 9 lb have “alse; themmeterence)), to\la
paper by Lawrence “On the Flora of the Western
Mountains of Van Diemen’s Land” (‘“‘ Bot. Miscel-
laneous,” 2 vols., 1825-1844), but I have not been able
to trace the work. See also (6).

He is commemorated by the following species :—

Correa Lawrenciana, Hook; Cryptandra Lawrencii,
Hook, f.Spryidium Lawrenci, Benth.; Sida Law-
rencea, F. v. M.—Plagianthus spicatus, Benth.; Heli-
chrysum Lawrencella, F. v. M.; Monemios Lawrencii,
Hook. {.=-Microseris Forsteri, Hook. {.; Pterygo-
pappis Lawrenci, Hook. {; Scorzonera Lawrencii,
Hook. {—Microseris Forsteri, Hook. f.; Libertia Law-
renciil, Hook. f=—L. pulchella, Spreng.; Podocarpus
Lawrencii, Hook. f.—P. alpina, Br.; Orthotrichum Law-
rencei, Mitt (a moss).

LHOTSKY, JOHN ( Y:

Was for some time in Tasmania as a Government
Medical Officer, and made botanical observations in
that colony, and also in New South Wales. See (2).

MEREDITH, LOUISA ANN, Mrs. Gee Twamley),
(1812- ):

Born at Hampstead, near Birmingham, on 2oth July,
1812.

On 18th April, 1839, married her cousin, Charles
Meredith, and shortly afterwards came out with him to
the Meredith home at “ Cambria,’ near Swansea, Tas-
mania, now rich in historical associations.

The father of John Meredith, Esq., brother-in-law
of the above of “ Cambria,” whose hospitality 1 enjoyed
some years ago, was the first white man to land on the
adjacent beach in 1821 or 1822.

She was the author of “ My Home in Tasmania,”
with landscape illustrations by the Bishop of Vasmania
(Dr. Nixon) and the author; “Some of My Bush

22 RECORDS OF TFASMANIAN BOTANISTS

Friends in Tasmania” (1860), a large and elaborate
work on the flora of the colony, with numerous coloured
plates from the author’s drawings. In 1891 was pub-
lished a second series of “ Bush Friends in Tasmania.”
She was a voluminous writer, and published many other
works, which are enumerated in (7).

She did much to advance a knowledge of Tas-
manian plants by contributing coloured drawings oi
them to many international exhibitions. She was made
an honorary member of this Society.

MILLIGAN, JOSEPH (1807-1883). _

Born in Dumfriesshire; M.R.U.S.E. 1829; was ap-
pointed surgeon to Van Diemen’s Land Co.'s estab-
lishment at Surrey Hills in 1830. — Ze

Became Superintendent of the Aborigines, and
visited their establishment at Flinders Island in 1843;
remained in charge till 1855, superintending the re-
moval of the aborigines from Flinders Island to Oyster
Cove in 1848. He left Tasmania in 1860.

“Dr. Joseph Milligan, of Hobarton (now Secretary to the
Royal Society of Hobarton), has, since the year 1834, visited
many parts of Tasmania, and made several most interesting dis-
coveries, especially on its loftiest mountains and East Coast.’”
(2) |

He was one of the founders of this Society, and its
Secretary from 1844 to 1860. He was considerable
authority on the aborigines of Tasmania. A list of his
papers will be found at p. 24 of Morton’s Register of
Papers in the ~ Tas: Journ. and Roy: Soc.”

His “Vocabulary of Dialects of the Aboriginal
Tribes of Tasmania” is reprinted in Brough Smyth’s
“ Aborigines of Victoria” il., 415-433.

He wrote chiefly on the aborigines, meteorology,
and zoology. He was employed by Governor Sir Wil-
liam Denison, in the interval of other duties, in making
surveys and reports on some of the numerous coal-fields.
on the ‘island. (See Blue-book, “ Papers relative to
Crown Lands in the Australian Colonies,” p. 125, 1851-)
There is a paper by him “ On some Fossil Plants Found
near Hobart Town and Launceston” (Tas. Journ. ii1.,.
131, 1849.) He was a most assiduous observer of Tas-
manian plants, and collected largely.

BY J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. 23.

He is commemorated by the following species :—

Eucryphia Milligani, Hook. f.—E. Billiardieri, Spach.
var. Milligani; Helichrysum Milligani, Hook. f.; Cy-
stanthe Milligani, Hook. f.—*Pilitis Milligani, Hook. f—
Richea Milligani, F. v. M.; Dracophyllum Mailligani,
Hook. f.; Hakea Millagin, Meissn==H. epiglottis,.
_Labill.; Orites Milligani, Meissn.; Dendrobium Muilli-.
gani, F. v. M.—D. striolatum, Reichb.; Pimelea Mailli-
gani, Meissn.

MUELLER, FERDINAND von (1825-1806).

Mueller contributed largely to the botany of Tas-
mania, but he was an Australian botanist, by no means
confining his energies to one State. An account of his
work will therefore be found in (5).

-1789).
Was a Kew gardener, and became Collector on

Cooks) Third Voyage (1776-80), HM.S:S: ~ Resolu-
tion’ and “ Discovery.”

NEESON, DAVID (

Captain Clerke writes to Banks:—‘* Your man Nel-
son is one of the quietest fellows in nature; he seems
very attentive, and, I hope, will answer your purpose
very well. ... He has made a trip up the country here
with 'Gore.”

EE MESsas Discovery. | Capervol Goods Elopeyi2and
November, 1776.*

From a letter at p. 4060 it is evident that Banks paid
Nelson’s expenses.

Cook visited Adventure Bay, Southern Tasmania,
in January, 1777, and a considerable collection of plants
“was made by Nelson and Mr. William Anderson, sur-
geon of the “ Resolution;” these plants are now in the
British Museum. He here collected twigs of a plant
which were taken to Europe, and described by L’Heri-
tier as Eucalyptus.

He was afterwards botanical collector in H.M.S.
“ Bounty,” 1787, under Captain Bligh, when that ship

* Hist. Rec. of N.S.W., i. (1), 405.

24 RECORDS OF TASMANIAN BOTANISTS.

sailed for Tahiti to transport bread-fruit trees to the
West Indies.

Bligh reported to Banks*, ** Bounty,” Spithead, 5th
November, 1787 :—

“The conduct of Nelson, the gardener, is very satisfactory.”

He was one of those sent adrift by the Mutineers of
the Bounty, and eventually died of the exposure’, and
of fever at Coepang, Timor, 20th June, 1789. Bligh
says of him—

“Whose good conduct in the course of the whole voyage and
manly fortitude in our late disastrous circumstances deserves
this tribute to his memory.”

In dedicating the genus Nelsonia, of the Acantha-
ceae, to his memory, Robert Brown (~ Prodromus”’)
says :—

“ Dixi in memoriam Davides Nelson, Hortulani meritissimi
qui in ultimo itinere Cookii plurimas novas species plantarum
primus legit, postea vero expeditioni priori Cel. Navarchi Bligh
adjunctus, in insula Timor occubuit.”

His Australian, Cape, and Timor plants are in the
British Museum (6). See also “ Gardeners’ Chronicle,”
1881, 11., 267.

NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM (? 1796-1859).

Died at the Botanical Gardens, Hobart, 23rd
August, 1859, aged 63. He came from Sydney, and
had been in charge since 1847. Buried at St. George’s
Cemetery (in the vault of Mr. H. Lipscombe, 27th
August).

He was the immediate predecessor of Francis
Abbott at the Botanical Gardens, Hobart.

OLDFIELD, AUGUSTUS FREDERICK (1820-
1887).

Born in London t2th January, 1820; died in Lon-
don 22nd May, 1887. His death was reported to this
Society on 15th August following; see the Hobart
» Meretry, or the next day.

Hlsbige, IRGC. CF NLSEWEG a (@)s mid7
t See also ““ Kew Bull.,” 1891, 297.

IBM fo Islg IWEMODIDINS IollisSs 25

His brother, Mr. E. D. Oldfield, kept a commercial
school in Hobart for many years, and gave his brother’s
herbarium to Kew after his death.

He made extensive collections in Tasmania for
Mueller and others (see “ Fragmenta”’), and a brief ac-
count of his researches in Westerns Australia will be
found in (9).

“Mr. Augustus Frederick Oldfield, one of the early scien-
tific investigators of Tasmania and Australia, died in London
on May 22. He had been afflicted with blindness for nearly 20
years, consequent upon the fatigue, privations, and exposure
incident to his wonderful feats of pedestrianism in the pursuit
of his favourite study—botany. The new plant was to him a
greater prize than the discovery of gold, and in his search for
such he was most indefatigable, both in Tasmania and Aus-
tralia; but some 20 years since his health became impaired and
hhis sight. affected. He went to London for treatment, but with-
out avail, and he soon lost his sight altogether—a sad state,
indeed, for one whose sole pleasures in life were dependent
upon vision. However, though unable as an author to per-
petuate the extensive knowledge he had acquired, he most un-
selfishly placed it at the disposal of those in a position to make
it available in the world of science, as is testified to by Dr.
Hooker, as President of the Royal Society, who, in supporting
the claim of the now deceased to some substantial recognition
of unrequited scientific labours, culminating in so sad an afflic-
tion as blindness, says:— I have known Mr. Augustus Oldfield
for nearly 20 years as a most active, able, industrious, and
trustworthy naturalist, and especially botanist, whose disin-
terested labours and collections have thrown great lights on
the flora of many distant, and some of them previously wholly
unexplored, districts of Australia. I should add that the libe-
rality with which he has dealt with the materials he collected
is beyond all praise. He gave specimens and information of
the most valuable description to public institutions, wherever
they were likely to be of use, without return of any kind, and
placed his knowledge at the disposal of naturalists in the most
enlightened manner. To the Flora of Tasmania his labours were
most important, and I am indebted to him for much valuable
aid, as the supplement of that work especially shows. I can
truly say that I know of no case of modest worth of heart,
hand, and head more deserving of public recognition by the
Governments of Australia than that of Mr. Augustus Oldfield.’
The above testimony notwithstanding, as well as that of Baron
von Mueller im a similar strain, failed to secure any such re-
cognition as desired, though application for it was made to the
Government of Tasmania. Some of the journeys performed by
the deceased in his scientific investigations, alone. and afoot,
were not unattended with danger at a time when many abo-
rigines were still in possession of their native home—the bush.
However, by tact, he in some way placated them, and, although
sometimes threatened, he was never in any way harmed. This
was particularly the case when walking from Sydney to Mel-

26 RECORDS OF TASMANIAN BOTANISTS.

bourne, some 40 years ago, and a few years subsequently from
King George’s Sound towards Adelaide, and again from Perth
to North-Western Australia, where for a year or so he mixed
freely with the natives, acquiring much knowledge of their
language and habits, which formed the subject of a paper read
before the Ethnological Society, London.” (Melbourne
“ Argus,” July 13, 1887.)

SCOTT THOMASICN ).

“Dr. Thomas Scott collected in Tasmania, and
transmitted specimens to Sir W. Hooker about 1835”
(2)

He was a collector of plants with Lawrence and
Gunn. (See Comp. Bot. Mage 1, 272.)

I have no further particulars concerning him, and
no species seems to have been dedicated to him.

SIBUAIRIEZAIN ID), WILLIE IUAIME SILA INIEJE NY (( -).

Mr. Sharland was a Government Surveyor, and ex-
plored much of Western Tasmania in the early days.
On the 8th March, 1832, he discovered Lake St. Clair,
and subsequently examined the country as far as
Frenchman's Cap. On returning from his survey tour
he used to bring specimens of the flora for botanical
friends, but did not himself collect. Mrs. Sharland
made large collections of algae near the mouth of the
‘Tamar.

She collected before Prof. Harvey’s advent to these
shores, for her collection of Tasmanian sea-weeds, sent
to the International Exhibition of 1851, was awarded a
bronze medal. The specimens were collected at Kelso,
in the north.

“ She was the daughter of Major Schaw, who served
in the Peninsular War, and, after retiring from the
Army was Police Magistrate at Richmond, Tasmania,
for many years.

“She was, I believe, born at Jamaica, in the West
Indies, 1813, and died at George Town, Tasmania,.
1859.”

The Rev. F. B. Sharland, son of the above, has
kindly furnished most of the above particulars.

BY J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. DF

SMITH, CHARLOTTE, nee .. .. ( y:

Mrs. Charlotte Smith, of Circular Head, Tasmania,
collected algae for Harvey, and Polyphacum Smithiae,
Hook. fil., et Harv. was named in her honour.

Of MARY BALLANTYNE (MRS. SMITH) and
JOHN GRANT SMITH, also early collectors of the
Tasmanian flora, I can trace no ‘particulars, nor of
SMITH, McDONALD ( ), Collector of
Algae” (2).

SPICER, M.A., REV. W. W. (==-1879).

Formerly a member of Council of this Society, and
iin Ayorell, Gras ( leicoe; IN@si, Soe; Mais, Isis), Fo, Zu Ine
was elected a Corresponding Member on the eve. of his
departure for England, a special resolution of the
Council being conveyed to him.

He was the author of a meritorious ““ Handbook of
the Plants of Tasmania ” (Hobart, 1878) on the dichoto-
mous system. He wrote both on botanical and eco-
nomic entomology for the Proceedings of this Society.
See papers on ~ Breot in the volume for 1877, p. 75,
and on “ Alien Plants,” containing a list of Tasmanian
aliens in the same volume, p. 62.

Mr. Spicer did a great deal of botanical work in
England before he came to Tasmania, but it is not on
record here. After his return to England he became
Rector of Itchen Abbas, near Winchester, where he died
about 1879.

Helichrysum Spiceri was named after him by
Mueller.

STORY, GEORGE FORDYCE (1800-1887).

Born at Carlisle, England, 4th June, 1800. Died at
Kelvedon, near Swansea, Tasmania, 7th June, 1887.

His father was a contemporary of John Wesley, and
one of his itinerant preachers; he was a Doctor of
Divinity, and in after years head of the printing estab-
lishment of the Wesleyans. G. F. Story was born when
his father was 60 years old, and became a Friend, like
his schoolfellow and old friend, Francis Cotton.

iS)
(ee)

RECORDS OF TASMANIAN BOTANISTS.

He was educated at the Marischal College, Aber-
deen, and was apprenticed to Dr. George French in
1819 for three years, going through the medical course.
He studied botany under Prof. Henderson.: He ob-

tained the degree of A.M. in 1820.

Going to Edinburgh in 1821, he continued his
medical studies. Botany he studied under Prof.
Graham. He attended at the Edinburgh Infirmary for
one year (1824), and the degree of Doctor of Medicine
was conferred on him the same year.

He was in private practice in London from 1825 to
1828.

Coming to Van Diemen’s Land, he was appointed
District Assistant Surgeon for the district of Great
Swanport (Waterloo Point) in April, 1829. He was in
charge of the Rocky Hills Probation Station, but prac-
tically lived at Kelvedon for the remainder of his life.
Both Mr. Edwin Cotton and Mrs. Francis Abbott in-
form me that he was in charge of the Royal Society’s
‘Gardens, Hobart, before Mr. Newman’s arrival in 1847.
In 1843 the members of the Tasmanian and Horticul-
tural Societies had determined to form a garden. The
Botanical Gardens were originally part of Government
House Gardens, surrendered by Sir John Franklin when
the Tasmanian and Horticultural Societies combined to
found the Royal Society.

He is buried on the property of Edward O. Cotton,
of Kelvedon, Swansea, a relative, whose hospitality I
enjoyed some years ago when I visited Swansea in my
search for particulars of Dr. Story and to collect where
Dr. Story collected, for he was an enthusiastic botanist.
He collected largely for Mueller.

SPUART CHARIS (1802-1877):

Born in England; died at Parramatta, N.S.W., Sep-
tember, 1877, and was buried in the Church of England
Cemetery there. This most meritorious botanist col-
lected sea-weeds largely at Southport for Harvey
(Phycologia Australica). Harvey figured Areschougia
Stuartii, Harv., named in his honour. He states :—
“Mr. Stuart’s meritorious explorations of Australian

BY J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. 29)

botany, both marine and terrestrial, worthily entitle him
to the compliment gratefully bestowed on him in the
specific name.”

Stuart collected largely in New South Wales, and I
have given an account of his botanical work in the re-
cord of the botanists of that State (5), to which I beg
to refer my readers. That record includes a list of the
Tasmanian plants named after him. He was a most
accurate and careful observer, and his plants, most of
which are in the National Herbarium, Melbourne, have
labels which show him to have been a critical observer
and an educated man with a very neat handwriting:

Through Miss Jessie Smith, of the MKurrajong,
N.S.W., I have learnt the following additional particu-
lars concerning Mr. Stuart:—Her father, the late Mr.
Charles Heath Smith, met him in Tenterfield, N.S.W.,
in 1875, and employed him as a gardener at Guildford,
N.S.W., until his death. He was a trained gardener,
and well versed in astronomy as well as botany. He
was employed by a Mr. Brown, in Tasmania, for part
of his stay there.

I have seen’a letter from Mueller to Mr. Heath
Smith, dated 3rd August, 1877, in which he said that
he met Mr. Stuart in Adelaide 30 years ago—that was
immediately after Mueller’s arrival in Australia.

RED OCHRE AND ITS USE BY THE
ABORIGINES OF TASMANIA.
(EAE)

By shirinz INOERwING VIGA, ser mac.

(Read May 3rd, 1909.)

There is hardly an account of the Aborigines of Tas-
mania in which the use of red ochre is not mentioned.
‘Captain Cook, in the description of his third voyage,
already states that the Aborigines smeared their hair
and beard with a mixture of grease and red ochre. Later
observers who came in contact with the Aborigines
‘noticed the same. The old oil paintings in our Museum
represent the male Aborigines as wearing a kind of red
wig, composed of long corkscrew-like ringlets (1). We
may therefore take it as granted that it was a favourite
custom with the Aborigines to rub a mixture of grease
and red ochre into the hair; and further, that this custom
was strictly limited to the males. Nowhere is it men-
tioned that the females followed the same habit, though
they frequently painted their face black with charcoal.
The hair clotted with red ochre was strictly a male
adornment, and it is very probable that the custom of
the females wearing their hair closely cropped resulted
from the desire to prevent them following the example
of their masters.

When examining the camping grounds my attention
was soon drawn to pieces of red iron ore lying about,
and, aiter collecting a number, I noticed that several
exhibited intensive signs of being used. The first speci-
mens I found on the camping ground, Old Beach;
others I found near Melton- Mowbray, Devonport, uc
but the largest number and the largest piece I found
near Baskerville and Winton, on the Macquarie River.

(1) This is most conspicuous in the painting representing a
sroup of Aborigines now in the Launceston Museum. All the
males have the hair clotted with red ochre, while the females
wear it closely cropped and in its natural colour.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 31

Specimens of red ochre are by no means common.
‘This is rather remarkable considering its frequent use.
For instance, so far I have found only a single piece
near Mona Vale, though to judge from the number of
tronattas left this must have been a much-used camping-
ground. Altogether I found 17 pieces, which cannot be
considered a large number.

I have not been able to examine the specimens
chemically, but the macroscopical examination is suffi-
cient to prove that the red ochre must be a ferruginous
substance. All specimens are strongly adhesive to the
tongue; in other words, they absorb water readily, and
are therefore hygroscopic. When broken they show an
inner core of black colour, covered by a crust of in-
tensely red colour. The thickness of the red crust varies,
but so far I have not found any specimens in which fe
exceeds 14 inch of thickness. These observations prove
that the red ochre represents an iron ore, probably
limonite (2 Fe2O3+3H2O), but also that the natural
mineral has undergone a certain change, by which some
of the water was removed. The dark brown natural
colour of the limonite is superficially changed into a
blood-red colour. The naturally non- iny groscopic
limonite has been turned into a hygroscopic substance.
The only way of producing such a change is by expos-
ing the mineral to heat—in other words, by roasting it.
That this view is correct is conclusively proved by the
examinations of the specimens, all of which are more or
less fire cracked.

We have therefore ascertained the important fact
that the red ochre as used by the Aborigines is not a
natural, but an artificial produce, being the result of
roasting certain suitable iron ores in the fire.

The Aborigines had therefore already made an in-
vention, which indicates a certain amount of logical
reasoning. They discovered that when a certain heavy
stone of dark colour is intensely heated, its surface
changes into a-red earthy substance. This invention
may Thane been made accidentally, but it certainly shows
a certain amount of observation, resulting in the subse-
quent extensive use of this red earthy substance instead
of the material originally used for ornamental purposes.

”

32 RED OCHRE AND ITS USE BY THE ABORIGINES.

Now, all the specimens show that the red oxide of
iron resulting from roasting was subsequently removed,
but not as we would suppose by either crushing the
whole specimen or by grinding, but by scraping the
roasted pieces. The red crust was scraped off by means
of a tronatta, and the traces left behind by this operation
are most chraracteristic. They consist in a number of
parallel, short scratches, which might almost be com-
pared to the scratches of ice-worn boulders. The ap-
pearance of the specimens, the curved scratched surface,
sometimes exhibiting faces like a crystal, conclusively
proves that the red crust cannot have been removed by
grinding, but must have been taken off by scraping.

The question how the red ochre was removed from
the roasted piece of iron ore is of some importance. It
has generally been assumed that the so-called “ mor-
tiers ’ of Europe were nothing else but a kind of palette
for grinding colours, in particular red ochre. Similar
‘“mortiers ’’ have been found in Tasmania, and I possess
two typical specimens from Melton-Mowbray. Tie ap-
pearance of all the pieces of red ochre conclusively
proves that the colour was removed by scraping, and
not by grinding; the hypothesis that this peculiar kind
of stones served as palettes i is no longer tenable.

We may therefore assume that the Aborigines aps:
roasted a suitable piece of iron ore, and aiterwards
scraped off the roasted crust, mixing the powder with
grease, and then rubbed the whole mixture well into
the hair, where it eventually dried, forming the peculiar

ringlets which were the chief adornment ‘of the “ pug-
Samana (0):

And what may be the origin of this peculiar custom?
Strzelecki assumes that it was done to prevent the gene-
ration of vermin; but if this is correct, why did only the
men and not the women resort to it? I think Ling
Roth is quite justified in refuting this somewhat illogical
theory, but he offers no other explanation. Perhaps the
following hypothesis may be nearer the mark :—

The Tasmanian word for red ochre is ba-la-wine,
which literally translated means “blood.” The Tas-
manian smeared “ blood” on his hair, though this blood

1) Adult Aborigine.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 33

was no longer actual blood, but a powder resembling
in colour to blood. We have here probably a kind of
in colour to blood. We have here probably a kind
of symbolical act, the last remains of a custom going
the blood of the vanquished enemy on his own head. It
would lead us away from the subject of this paper to
discuss the various, sometimes uncanny, rites in which
the blood of the vanquished enemy plays an impor-
tant role. But if this view be correct, the primitive Tas-
manian civilisation must already represent a type higher
than that when actual blood was used instead of red
ochre. Observations like this, which now and then lift
the thick veil which covers the early history of the
human race, make us shudder to think what miserable
wretches those human beings must have been, compared
to which the primitive Tasmanian represented a high
state of civilisation.

The following words are given in the vocabularies
of the Tasmanian language for “hair clotted with red
ochre :—

(a) Ringlets (Corkscrews, with Red Ochre). ~

Eastern Tribes—Pow-ing-arooteleebana.
Southern Tribes—Poeena.
West and North-West Tribes—Poenghana.

(b) Hair (Matted with Ochre).

Eastern Tribes—Poinghana.
Southern Tribes—Poeena.

All these words are practically the same, particularly
if we consider that the suffix, “ arooteleebana,’’ means
nothing but the enhancement of the good qualities of
the first word (1). We may therefore take it that

Poi-ngha-na or
Poi-na
means hair matted with red ochre.

Now we find under the heading Shave to (with
flint), in Milligan’s vocabulary, the following words :—

Eastern Tribes—Poyngha runn yale.

Southern Tribes—Poynghate rana yale.

(1) Without going into further details I cannot explain this,
but in another paper I will give sufficient proof for this view.

34 RED OCHRE AND ITS USE BY THE ABORIGINES.

The operation of shaving by means of a flint is here ~
unquestionably expressed by two words, and it rather
seems a puzzle to find an explanation for this. If we,
however, write the second expression in the following
way—

Poyngha-terana-yale,
this problem takes at once a different shape. Terana is
undoubtedly the word teroona-trona-trowa, which we
know stands for stone implement (flint).

The verbal translation is therefore

Poyngha—Hair, matted with red ochre.

Terana—Flint.

Yale—(?).
That is to say, the hair matted with red ochre (is re-
moved by means of a) flint. It would be very simple if
the still doubtful werd “ yale ” would represent the verb,
and simply mean “cut” or “removed,” but this inter-
pretation is more than doubtful, because yale occurs
rather in a peculiar way in connection with other words,
which make such a conjecture untenable. In conjune-
tion with the words “ noan,” “ loan, ’—“ stone,” it must
represent a particular kind of stone, and the question is,
will we be able to fix on its meaning?

We know that the Northern and North-western
tribes called the freestone ponin-galee; we have there-
fore

Loan-yale,
Ponin-galee,
Terana-yale,

and this seems to indicate that the “poingha” was
shaved with a particular kind of flint, the “ terana-yale,”
and if we were able to translate the word “yale,” not
only would we have explained the meaning of the words
in question, but we would have ascertained a further-
most important point, namely, that the shaving the
matted hair was done with a special kind of flint.

We find that under the heading freestone the follow-
ing words occur :—

Eastern Tribes—Boatta or potha malleetye.
Southern Tribes—Potta mallya.
North and Western Tribes—Ponin galee.

‘BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 35

_ Ido not think that there can be the slightest doubt that

the words used by the Eastern and Southern tribes are

practically the same, and that freestone was called
Potta-malle(ea)—(mali).

In going through the vocabulary, we find under the
heading “ White,”

Eastern Tribes—Malleetye.

Southern Tribes—Mallee or Malluah.

North and Western Tribes—Mugyanghegarrah.

It is therefore unquestionable that

Potta malee(tye)
means a white or whitish rock. This fully agrees with
the appearance of the freestone, which is a sandstone of
light yellowish, frequently almost whitish, colour (1).
There is not the slightest reason to assume that the
“treestone ” of the Western and North-Western tribes
was different from that which occurs in the Southern
and Eastern parts of the island. Though somewhat dif-
ferent in spelling, I have no doubt that

Ponin galee and potta malee

are exactly the same; in other words, that
the Western and North-Western tribes is the

Mallee(tye)
of the Eastern and Southern tribes, and means “ white.”

galee”’ of

I do not think that there can be much doubt as to
the identity of the words
Galee and yale(e),
and if this be so
“ Verane, yale”
would mean “ white flint.”

The complete verbal translations would therefore
be—
Poyngha—Hair, matted with red ochre.
Terana—Flint.
Yale—White.
and the operation which Milligan freely translated as
“to shave with a flint ’ would be expressed by the above
three words.

(1) For instance, in the quarries near Austin’s Ferry.

36 RED OCHRE AND ITS USE BY THE ABORIGINES

Now, it will at once be seen that, according to the
position of the word “ white,” two quite different inter-
pretations of the above words are possible.

If we assume that “yale” was the attribute of
“terana,’ the translation would be—

(The) hair matted with red ochre (is cut with a) white
flint,

and this would prove that the important, and probably
also painful, operation of removing (cutting or shaving)
the hair thickly clotted with red ochre was carried out
by means of a special kind of flint—a white flint to whit.

Another interpretation is, however, possible if the
word “yale” is not an attribute of “terana.” We may
then read it as follows :—

(The) hair matted with red ochre (with a) flint (was
made) white.

Now, it is hardly surprising that in the Tasmanian
language the same word is used to denote ** white’ and
“clean.” What is white is clean, and what is clean is
white. The primitive Tasmanian language knew not the
fine distinctions of our highly-developed one, and we
may therefore read the above as follows :—

(The) hair ae with red ochre (with a) flint (was
made) clean (1).

Though we succeeded in giving a literal translation
of the words which Milligan presumed to mean “to.
shave with a flint,” the true meaning of these words is
by no means certain, and open to two widely different
interpretations, and it has to be examined which is the
more probable one.

At the end of his vocabulary Milligan gives a number
of short sentences, which are of Hine utmost value.”
Among these we find—

He cuts ‘his hair with flint—Tuggana pugheranymee
trautta.

(1) Of course we may also substitute the word “clean” for
“white” in the first translation; but here the alteration does
not produce such a change in the meaning. I suppose it mat-
tered little whether the flint used was clean or dirty, though it
would matter considerably whether it was “ black” or ‘‘ white.”

‘ BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 37

Ling Roth has already remarked, and nobody can
fail to note this, that Milligan’s translations are some-
what free, and it is almost certain that this applies with
some force to the above sentence.

Notwithstanding the different spelling, we recognise
in the first word—
Tugga-na—
the Tasmanian word for a grown-up (adult) man, and
the last word represents our well-known trowatta, the
stone implement. We have therefore

Pagga-na—the adult man (black)
Pugheranymee—(?)
Trautta—fint.

Of course, the use of the impersonal, “the adult
black man,” instead of the personal pronoun, “he,” sig-
nifies nothing. But what did he do with the trautta? If
Milligan’s translation were correct

“ Pugheranymee ”’

must mean “to cut the hair,’ considering that we have
accounted for the first and last word. This conjecture
is, perhaps, rather hazardous. Whether clotted with
red ochre or not, “‘hair”’ is represented by the words—

Eastern Tribes—Poing-lyenna,
Southern Tribes—Poiete-longwinne,

but it is impossible to recognise this word in the above.
It rather seems as if “ pugheranymee,” if divested of
the unnecessary suffix, is a kind of plural of the singular
pugga-na. However that may be, it 1s certain that Muilli-
gan’s translation cannot be correct. The adult black
man does something with a flint, but he certainly does
not cut his own hair (1). The second word rather seems
to suggest that the “ black man” does something with
his flint for his brethren. Could it be accepted that this
something was “hair cutting,’ the first view, namely,
that “yale” was an attribute of “terana,’ and that a

(1) It may be remarked here that, if anaiysed, Miiligan’s
‘sentence seems to be somewhat hazy. Is it probable that an
Aborigine would have cut his own hair with his own hands
“with a flint? It is more than probable that somebody else per-
formed the operation for him than he himself.

38 RED OCHRE AND ITS USE BY THE ABORIGINESe

“white” flint was essential, seems untenable, because
in this sentence a “trautta” plain and simple is used,
and not a “terana yale.”

There is another consideration: all authors agree
that the Aborigines thought the hair clotted with ochre
as a great ornament—in fact, that it was the usual, ex-
clusive male adornment. According to Bonwick, a re-
bellion nearly burst out on Flinders Island, whence the
remnant of the Tasmanians had been removed, when
orders were once issued forbidding the use of ochre and
grease. Now, is it possible that, “considering the great
value an Aborigine placed on his head ornament, that
he would have voluntarily removed it by shaving? The
women had the hair of their head closely cropped, but
the men never followed this custom, at least there is
no record that they ever did it. It is therefore very
probable that Milligan’s sentence, “He cuts his hair
with a flint,’ is intrinsically wrong, because there is
every probability that the pagga-na, the adult Abo-
rigine, never did such a thing either to himself or to his
friends.

It further follows that the translation “to shave with
a flint” is also not quite correct, because the word
“poingha”’ applies to hair clotted with red ochre, there-
fore to a male, and not to a female, whose hair was
habitually cropped.

We must therefore assume that the words

Poyngha—hair, clotted with red ochre,
Terana—flint,
Yale—white,

really mean to clean (make white) the hair clotted with
red ochre with a flint. No doubt that such an operation
became necessary now and then, in order to give a fresh
application of the valued mixture. There is equally no
doubt that a good deal of the hair was involuntarily re-
moved during this probably painful operation, and the
Europeans who witnessed it thought this to be the ob-
ject, and not the removal of the red ochre, and in want
of a better word they described it as “ shaving with a
flint.”

Roy. Soc. TAsm., 1909.

RED OCHRE FROM BASKERVILLE, MACQUARIE RIVER.

TASMANIAN ONAGRACEAE.
(IBA INES Wiss VIL)

By L. Ropway, GovERNMENT BoTANIsT.

(Read 14th June, 1909.)

We have in Tasmania representatives of only two:
genera belonging to this family, Oenothera and Epilo-
bium. Of the first genus we have only one species. It
is a small herb of very restricted distribution, and was
described by Sir J. D. Hooker in the Flora Tasmaniae.
It was gathered by R. Gunn in marshy land about Marl-
borough in 1841, and does not appear to have been re-
corded since till the early part of this year, when it was
found by G. Weindorfer and Dr. Sutton in the vicinity
of Middlesex Plains. It is confined to the western por-
tion of Tasmania, and neither it nor any other native
member of the genus has yet been recorded from Aus-
tralia or New Zealand. Bentham considered this species
to be very close to, 1f not identical with, O. dentata,
Cav., which is a native of Western America, extending
from South Chili to California.

Our plant does not recall the idea of an Oenothera,
as the calyx tube is just as short as it is in our Epilo-
biums, and would be readily taken for a small member
of that genus, but the fruit and seeds are typical. In
Hooker’s description he gives the colour as purplish,
but queries it. Bentham unhesitatingly states it as
yellow. In Weindorfer’s specimens they are all of a pale
purple pink. The colour is very liable to be lost in
herbarium material, and it is probable Bentham was
misled from the prevailing colour of the genus. The
anatomy appears to strictly conform to the type of the
family. The cortex is relatively thick and soft, many of
the cells being packed with acicular raphides. The
phloem is not gathered in well defined bundles. The
Xylem is copious in a continuous ring. There is a small
pith with Intra-xylary phloem. The indumentum con-
sists only of simple woolly hairs. The dentations of the
leaves terminate in water-pores.

40 TASMANIAN ONAGRACEAE.

In the genus Epilobium we have six fairly well-
marked forms, and they show an affinity wit those of
New Zealand. Four names other than those here
adopted appear in standard works, namely, E. tetra-
gonum, L—A European plant that probably does not
occur south of the equator. It was used to denote most
of our larger forms before their distinctness from
northern types was recognised. E. alpinum, L.—Some
of our alpine forms appear identical with this, but it
may be a coincidence, the two diverge materially in their
common habitats. The typical form of E. glabellum,
Forster, has not yet been gathered in Tasmania, though
the name has been made much use in describing our
forms. In the Flora Novae Zelandiae Hooker described
a plant as E. tenuipes. He also grouped under the name
two of our closely-allted plants, but the typical New
Zealander does not appear to grow here. Our six species
as here treated are :—

Ep. pallidiflorum, Sol.

Ep. Billardierianum, Ser.
Ep. junceum, Sol.

Ep. Gunnianum, Haussk.
Ep. confertifolium, Hook, f
Ep. Tasmanicum, Haussk.

Our E. pallidiflorum conforms to the New Zealand
type except that its flowers are pink, turning purple when
dried, instead of white. E. Billardierianum is one of our
commonest forms. It appears at nearly all altitudes, and
varies somewhat, but it is the only form whose leaf is
margined with numerous acute, irregular teeth. In the
Flora Hooker figured our large flowered mountain plant
as tiais, but even if he wished to include it he was in
error figuring it as the type. E. junceum is our common
form in lowland pastures and dry places, leaving the
swamps to the last two. It has the same pale colour,
due to woolly hairs, that marks the New Zealand plant.
E. Gunnianum is the name given by Professor Haussk-
necht to the large floweret plant figured by Hooker. It
is not a purely alpine species, and when it descends the
flowers become reduced, but never as much so as in E.
junceum, though it much resembles the latter in the
leaves, which are bordered by few, remote, rather blunt
serrations. E. confertifolium is essentially a plant of

BY L. RODWAY, GOVERNMENT BOTANIST. 41

sub-alpine moors. It trails for a few inches on the
ground, has thick, narrow, oblong, overlapping leaves
bordered by few teeth; its fruit is dark, glabrous, and
dumentum on the stem and peduncle. It is one of the
forms included by Hooker in .E. tenuipes. The other is
E. Tasmanicum, of Haussknecht. This is certainly
rather close to the last, but the leaves are broad, entire
on the margin or nearly so, and always stalked; the
iruiting peduncle is very elongated, and the plant is quite
glabrous. The appearance is very much that of the
typical E. tenuipes, only that has very narrow leaves and
smooth seeds. E. Tasmanicum occurs in New Zealand,
but it is a rare species, and neither Kirk, Cheeseman,
nor Haussknecht himself appear quite clear as to its
characters.

All our species have broadly clavate stigmas and
minutely papillose seeds. From descriptions of Epilo-
bium, students would infer that tine sepals are free or
nearly so; in all our species the calyx is distinctly
tubular at the base. Petals always notched in the centre
For the use of collectors I include a short analysis of
the plants :—

OQenothera Tasmanica, Hook, f. Fl. Tas., a small,
weak. vaguely-branched herb. decumbent or ascending
not long stalked; it generally bears a fair amount of in-
amongst undergrowth, 2 to 4 inches high, slightly
pubescent, with simple hairs. Leaves mostly opposite,
narrow, oblong to ovate, of a thin texture, narrowed
into a very short petiole, obtuse, about '% inch long,
bordered by a few small distant serrations. Flowers few,
single in the axils, nearly sessile, about as long as the
leaves. Calyx about 2 lines long, the lobes as long as
the tube, the whole deciduous. Petals purple pink,
ratner exceeding the calyx obcordate, inserted at the
orifice of the tube. Stamens eight, the four opposite the
petals shorter than the sepaline ones, arising from the
base but adherent to the top of the tube; anthers short,
broadly oblong, minutely apiculate. Capsule about %
inch long, lanceolate, obscurely tetraquetrous, nearly
sessile, often slightly curved. Seeds minute, hairless,
obovate, convex externally.

In wet sub-alpine places. Marlborough, Middlesex
Plains..

42 TASMANIAN ONAGRACEAE.

In these Epilobiums the calyx has a short tube, the
lobes are blunt to subacute indifferently, petals con-
spicuously notched, stigma broadly clavate, mature fer-
tile seed papillose.

E. pallidiflorum, Soland., ex A. Gunn, Precurs. n. 550.
Simple, erect from a shortly decumbent base, 1 to 2 feet,
young parts delicately pubescent. Leaves opposite, ses-
sile, lanceolate, narrowed or broad towards the base, 1
to 2 inches long, bordered by small, distant serrations.
Flowers in many upper axils, exceeding the leaves.
Sepals, % inch. Petals 34 inch, pink, becoming purple
when dry. Capsule 2 inches on a stalk rather shorter
than the leaves.

Common in swamps.

By Billardienanum, Ser; in Diy Rrodieinit Dee
cumbent at the base, emitting long, slender stolons with
distant pairs of small ovate leaves, then erect, or flaccid
in undergrowth, 1 to 2 feet high, delicately pubescent.
Leaves 34 to 2 inches long opposite, ovate, pubescent
on the ribs, subacute, sessile, with an almost cordate base,
margin with numerous small, unequal, acute teeth.
Flowers in many of the upper axils similar to those of
E. junceum, but larger. Capsules 2% inches long,
pubescent, on stalks shorter than the leaves.

Common in damp situations at all altitudes except
mountain tops.

EK. junceum, Soland.,in G. Forst., Prod. n. 516. Erect
or sub-decumbent, much branched towards the base,
about I foot high, most parts clothed with a delicate
white pubescence. Leaves mostly alternate, %4 to 34
inch, narrow lanceolate, tapering at the base, bordered
by a few distant, bold serrations. Flowers in many
axils, exceeding the leaves. Calyx, 1 to 2 lines long:
Petals slightly exceeding the sepals; light purple to
nearly white. Capsule 2 to 3 inches; slender, on a stall
about one inch long.

Very common in lowlands in dry as well as damp
situations.

E. Gunnianum, Haussk., Mono. Epilob. Erect from
a decumbent base, % to I foot; stems and capsules
minutely pubescent. Leaves mostly opposite, sometimes.
three together ; narrow oblong, sessile or shortly stalked

Ss: >

Roy, Soc. Tasm,, 1909. PL

OENOTHERA TASMANICA, HOOK. F.

ne
Sea
Scot et

PL. Wil.

Roy. Soc, TASsM., 1909.

EHPILOBIUM TASMANICUM, HAUSSK,

BY L. RODWAY, GOVERNMENT BOTANIST. 4.3.

usually, but not always rather thick, obtuse; % to 1 inch
long, generally glabrous, bordered by distant serrations,
which are usually small, sometimes bolder, at others
obsolete. Flowers in the upper axils, few, exceeding the
leaves. Calyx 2 to 4 lines. Petals, 4 to 6 lines, purplish,
to white. Capsule, 1 to 2 inches on a relatively short
stalk. !

Common, but principally at a high altitude.

Ee conertnolitm, Elook., 1. El Antare; 1 10, Pros-
trate or ascending at the tip; 1 to 4 inches long; slightly,
generally bifariously, pubescent. Leaves narrow, oblong,
mostly opposite and secund; glabrous, shining, thick ;
¥% to I inch long; upper ones sessile or shortly stalked;
the petioles of the lower ones often %4 inch long, mar-
gined with few distant serrations. Flowers few, exceed-
ing the leaves on a short pubescent stalk, the ovary
datk, glabrous. Calyx, 1 to 2 lines. Petals not much
exceeding the sepals; pink, rarely white. Capsule, 1 to
1% inches long, the stalk seldom as long as the leaves.

Common on mountain plateaux.

EK. Tasmanicum, Haussk., Mono. Epilob. Prostrate,
rooting at the nodes, all parts glabrous. Leaves broadly
ovate, obtuse, opposite, stalked; %4 to % inch long, shin-
ing; margin entire or with obsolete serrations. Flower
usually solitary, exceeding the leaves, shortly stalked.
Calyx, 1% lines long. Petals about as long as the sepals,
usually white. Capsule about 1 inch long, on a slender
stalk, often exceeding 2 inches. Seeds papillose.

Franklin River, Picton River, Mount Humboldt.

THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN
ABORIGINES.

35Y HERMANN B. Ritz, M.A.

(Read 14th June, rgo9.)

I1—INDRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The reconstruction of the speech of the extinct Tas-
manian Aborigines seems at first almost impossible,
owing to the paucity and dubiousness of the records we
possess ; but after careful research we find that, though
the records are scanty, yet they are fairly ample, con-
sidering the comparatively small number of the con-
stituent parts of the language, and a reasonable degree
‘of probability can be attained by a patient study of the
material available.

As we proceed in our investigation, we find that the
subject opens up most interesting avenues of thought,
and promises to lead to important results in the domains
of philology, ethnology, and anthropology. To exhaust
it would require the labour of years; but it is possible
and expedient to formulate ‘a working theory and sub-
mit it to competent criticism, and this is what I now
venture to do

Before entering upon this working theory, it will be
advisable to define the scope of the present investiga-
tion.

As a trained philologist, 1 am well aware of the
classification of the languages of mankind, and have a
working knowledge of a certain number of them; but
I find the characteristics of the Tasmanian speech so
primitive and unstable, that ] cannot see my way to enrol
it in any of the classes given by the text-books.

It might be called a root-isolating language, akin to
the Chinese, but for the fact that its roots are liable to
variation, within certain limits, not merely in the speech
of different tribes or families, but even in the usage of

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 45

any individual speaker. Moreover, a root may have a
certain meaning in one family and apparently a quite
different meaning in the other, and phonetic changes
seem to have been subject to accident rather than to
phonetic laws. Of course, we are not bound to admit
the existence of accidents, and we may reasonably as-
sume that a law may be found, if we only will or can
go deep enough to find it.

To find the law underlying the phenomena of the
Tasmanian speech is the object of the present investiga-
tion.

Again, it has been suggested that this speech is akin
to that of the Australian Continent or some parts of it,
or to that of the South Sea Islands, or to that of the
Andaman Islands, and on these assumptions, theories of
ethnological affinity have been based.

Now, a scientific opinion on this must be founded on
the knowledge of all the speeches in question, and is not
within the scope of our present study, not only from
want of sufficient knowledge, but also because of its
extent and practical uncertainty. The similarity of
speech between two distant races or tribes does not
justify even a presumption of ethnological affinity, ex-
cept in so far as we may assume the essential uniformity
of psychological and physiological processes in all
human beings. Still, on the latter assumption we may
establish analogies, provided we can find the speakers
of the different languages to be at the same stage of
mental development.

Finally, the anthropological aspect of our subject
claims our attention, because the evidence of the avail-
able records of the Tasmanian speech seems to show
that those that used it represented the primitive, or at
least very early, stage of human thought and speech.
Moreover, it shows that however primitive their thought
and speech were, they were of the same kind as those
of all other races of which we have any knowledge.

It seems clear, then, that we must restrict our pre-
sent researches to the Tasmanian speech; and even here
we find a larger field than at first we should expect, and
are therefore compelled to subdivide it, in order to tfor-
mulate a reasonably complete statement of each part.

46 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

Practically all the available material is contained
in H. Ling Roth’s work, “The Aborigines of Tas-
mania” (Halifax, 1899), supplemented by H. De
Charency’s “ Recherches sur les Dialectes Tasmaniens ”
(Alencon, 1880). A comparison of H. Ling Roth’s work
with the sources of his information proves that his work
may safely be taken as a reliable standard of reference,
asian as) the main tacts are concerned) thes milspiints
and errors of transcription are comparatively few in
number and easily corrected. We shall therefore be
able to quote chiefly from that book.

De Charency simply gives a list of words taken
chiefly from French authors.

Latham (1) and Miller (2) have dealt with the Tas-
manian speech, but | purposely postpone the study of
their theories until I have completed the elaboration of
my own. I am familiar with the usual views on the
subject of their works, and, on the other hand, do not
wish to run the risk of unconscious bias in favour of any
particular view until | have thoroughly investigated the
original sources of information.

Taking, then, H. Ling Roth’s book as our guide, we
find that there are certainly several dialects of the Tas-
manian language, and that these dialects are assignable
to fairly definite geographical regions. The number of
these dialects is difficult to ascertain; but on broad lines
we can easily distinguish two, spoken in regions which
are separated by mountains and other obstacles, viz., the
Western and North-Western speech on the one hand,
and the Eastern and Southern on the other. The re-
cords of the former are much scantier than those of the
latter, and of these, more material is definitely assigned
to the East Coast than to the region of the River
Derwent.

We shall therefore begin our scrutiny with the
records of the Eastern speech, then take those of the
Southern, and finally those of the Western and North-
Western dialects.

(1) G. R. Latham, Elements of Comparative Philology,
(london, 1862).

(2) Fried. Miiller, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft
(Vienna, 1876).

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 47

First, however, we must briefly refer to the charac-
‘teristics of the records themselves. It is evident that
the original writers of these records had no special
training for this work. Many of them were men of con-
siderable scientific attainments, but there was no spe-
cialist in philology among them, and even if there had
been, the science of Phonology, indeed that of Com-
parative Philology itself, had not in their time emerged
from mere empiricism to the rudiments of strictly logical
treatment.

Again, some of the recorders were French, one was
a Scandinavian, others were natives of different parts
of the United Kingdom, and each of these recorded what
he thought he heard and according to the way he tried
to imitate the Tasmanian words. When we add to these
causes of uncertainty the circumstances that ortho-
graphy was not always a point of excellence in those
days, we realise some of the difficulties attending our
examination of the records. Still, some of these difficul-
ties are not as great as one would expect. After all, the
spelling was to a certain extent phonetic, and by pro-
nouncing the Tasmanian words as if they were English,
and comparing them with similar words of kindred
meaning, we soon learn to fix the actual sounds with
some certainty.

There is vet another difficulty with those records.
When vocabularies and lists of phrases were beginning
to be compiled, the influence of the white invaders of
Tasmania had been active for about thirty years, and
had almost completely destroyed the original conditions
of the life of the Aborigines. The survivors had been
collected, and their various dialects had been mutilated,
and amalgamated into a sort of “ lingua franca” made
up of convenient native words and colloquial and tech-
nical English terms. Still, it is possible to pick out words
characteristic of certain dialects, just as we could deter-
mine the Attic, lonic, Doric, and Aeolian forms from
‘a plece of Greek composition done by an ambitious
schoolboy. Nor is the admixture of English words of
serious consequence; the words are chiefly the names
of things unconnected with the life of the Aborigines,
‘and, fortunately for our purpose, the native syntax was
not interfered with to any noticeable extent, owing to a
very interesting circumstance. For it is peculiar to

48 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN. ABORIGINES.

English-speaking travellers that they endeavour to im-
press their meaning on the “ foreign’ natives by speak-
ing very loudly and distinctly, and by using what has
been called ‘ ‘ jingalese ” syntax, after the style of Mr.
Alfred Jingle, which consists in uttering a series of
names of things and actions without any attempt at con-

necting them.

Now, this is precisely the style of the Aboriginal
speech, and the similarity of the two styles on the one
hand confirms the conjecture that the Aboriginal style
Was a primitive, infantile method of conveying thought,
and, on the other hand, it helps to explain the fact that
English in its “ pidgin” or “ business” form is so easily
acquired by foreigners.

In my interpretation of the Popela Song (Papers of
the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1908), I had occasion to
give some examples of this style of speaking, and we
shall consider some further illustrations in due course.

For the present, we shall discuss only one point
more, namely, the intonation of the Aboriginal speech,
as regards word accent and phrase modulation. The
records do not always indicate the word-accent, and
when they do, they often vary. Two methods of indi-
cating the accented syllable are used, viz., that of doub-
ling the consonant after the accented vowel, and that of
putting a small horizontal stroke over that vowel; and
these methods are employed with sufficient frequency
to allow of definite conclusions on the matter.

As an interesting illustration we may take the word
for “ bullock ” or “ beef,” quoted by H. Ling Roth from
Jorgensen’s vocabulary (p. 182). Jorgensen says, inter
alia, that buckelow or bacala, “‘ bullock,’ is from the
English, probably because there were no native bul-
locks. The English word “ bullock ” would be changed
by metathesis Hai “buckle,” and lengthened by ‘the
usual epithetic vowel into “ buckla,” or something like
it. It is evident that the word accent rests on the first
syllable. But Norman in his vocabulary (L.R., p. 1)
gives the word as parkallar. Now, in this vocabulary,
we must eliminate the majority of the r’s, as merely
phonetic devices ; thus we get pak lla, where the accent
is not only marked by ane stroke above the second a,
but also by the doubling of the 1 following it.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 49

Now, the Tasmanian word-accent was quite fre-
quently on the third syllable from the end—the ante-
penult, so that the change in the present case cannot be
due to a linguistic habit of placing the accent on the
penult. There are at least two obvious explanations of
this matter. The unstable character of the Aboriginal
speech may have extended the word-accent, and left
each speaker or family of speakers free to accentuate a
word at random or at will. Indeed, we find strong evi-
dence of such a state of things. For instance, H. Ling
Roth quotes for “foot” or “lege’”’ the following words
—languna (p. 11.), lagarra (p. xi.), langna (p. xili.), which

seems identical with langana (p.’xi.) with the accent on
the first syllable, luggana (DS eexsqvits) qule um aay (penpxcxexe je
langeneh (p. L.).

Again, the word buckelow may not be of English
origin at all. This seems the more plausible view, for
we Pan cognate words in the undoubtedly Aboriginal
vocabulary, e.g., wakella—mussel (p. iv.), wakellinal
sun or moon (p. v.), wakella—calf of leg (p. i.), zil of
which denote something “ round.”

The modulation of the voice in speaking is or the
same kind as that found in Kuropean languages, for in-
stance in English as spoken by a North Briton, a
Welshman, or an Irishman. We find it most clearly
expressed in song and in the love of singing, and the
Tasmanian Aborigines afford good examples of it. H.
Ling Roth (pp. 134 ff.) gives a good account of the
music of the Aborigines ; ‘but a better icleZi Ox se Cah [Oe
gathered from hearing the songs themselves. This is
possible to us, owing to that wonderful device called
the gramophone. Mr. Horace Watson, of Sandy Bay,
an ardent and sympathetic student of Aboriginal life,
had shown much kindness to Mrs. Fanny Cochrane
Smith, one of the descendants of the Aboriginal Tas-
manians, and, on one occasion she was delighted to
please him by singing two native songs into a phono-
graph. The circumstances thus render the sincerity of
her performance unquestionable. The records are in
perfect order, and Mr. Watson, to help me in my study
of the Tasmanian speech, most generously gave me a
copy of each. I hope to have an opportunity to trans-
late and explain these records to the Royal Society; for
the present I would only point out that the first song is.

50 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

distinguished for the precision of its rhythm, and the
second is perhaps an imitation, not of a Highland bag-
-pipe, as Bonwick opined, but of the melody of a native
magpie, which most unmelodiously the zoologists call a
“piping crow.”

i PHONOLOGY OAND SE VMiASt ORO

H. Ling Roth, in his “Aborigines of Tasmania,”
tabulates some 3,000 words of their language. As |
have stated before, his lists are fairly accurate copies of
the original sources of his information, and may safely
be used as a basis for our detailed investigation. We
shall take our examples chiefly from the Appendix. The
original recorders endeavoured to write phonetically.
Thus we find on the one hand a considerable variety in
the spelling of the same Aboriginal words, and, on the
other hand, this variety itself enables us to fix the actual
sound, because there is in most cases only one group of
sounds than can be phonetically represented by all the
varieties of the spelling.

But here we meet with a phenomenon which seems
to present an insuperable obstacle, and yet contains the
key to a plausible solution of the whole question; for we
find in words of the same dialect such similarity as
argues an identity of meaning, and such differences as
are in other languages found as distinguishing charac-
teristics of different dialects. We may assume words
to be of the same dialect, if they appear in the vocabulary
of a recorder who did not meet with more than one
tribe of Aborigines, or who had sufficient knowledge of
different tribes to be able to assign each word to its
proper origin. Among the former are chiefly the navi-
gators, e.g., Cook, Péron, and La Billardicre; among
the latter we may mention Norman, Jorgensen, and
Milligan. ;

Now, these quasi-identical words might have come
from different tribes, and thus have formed a composite
vocabulary, especially as we find, on comparing the
various dialects, that they evidently are species of the
same generic language. But we read in H. Ling Roth's

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 51

work (p. 166) that Mr. Robert Clark, catechist, states
that on his arrival at the Flinders Settlement, in 1834,
eight or ten different languages or dialects were spoken
among the 200 natives then at the establishment, and
that the blacks were instructing each other to speak
their respective tongues. This would not have been
necessary if there had been a common vocabulary, such
as we find in the various dialects of English, French,
German, etc.

Again, Milligan wrote (L. Roth, p. 180) :—** The cir-
cumstance of the Aboriginal inhabitants of Van Die-
men’s Land being divided into many tribes and sub-
tribes, in a state of perpetual antagonism and open
hostility to each other, materially added to the number
of the elements and agents of mutation ordinarily
operating on the language of an unlettered people. To
this was superadded the effect of certain superstitious
customs everywhere prevalent, which led from time to
time to the absolute rejection and disuse of words pre-
viously employed to express objects familiar and indis-
pensable to all, thus tending arbitrarily to diversify the
dialects of several tribes. The habit of gesticulation and
the use of signs to eke out the meaning of monosyllabic
expressions, and to give force, precision, and character
to vocal sounds, exerted a further modifying effect, pro-
ducing, as it did, carelessness and laxity of articulation
and in the application and pronunciation of words. The
last-named irregularity, namely, the distinctly different
pronunciation of a word by the same person on different
occasions, to convey the same idea, is very perplexing
until the radical or essential part of the word, apart from
prefixes and suffixes, is caught hold of.”

Dr. Milligan’s opinion is of great weight, as he made
special efforts to obtain reliable information, and had
special facilities for investigation. It is his last-quoted
sentence that indicates the starting point of our present
researches.

When we examine the syllables of the Aboriginal
words, we notice that they are few in number and simple
in structure. This is due to the paucity of consonants
and vowels, and even these may be reduced, owing to
the peculiarity that they can be arranged in groups, the
members of which are interchangeable.

52 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

H. Ling Roth (p. 183) enumerates the following con-
sonants—‘b, c (? k), g, h (only at the end of words),
ik im, ns p, @ (qu) [Pek ew |) chy aude (ore
nounced as in ‘(German hochachten).”

Now, it will be shown that, very probably, these
may be reduced to the following groups—b p w, dt, =
k ch gh,l mnr ng.

d is apparently characteristic of the Western dialect ;
H. Ling Roth does not include it in his list; ng, belong-
ing to most dialects, is also omitted.

Again, we find 1, m, n, r, ng as alternatives of t, p,
t, k respectively; ng may also stand for n, sometimes
for nag. Thus we have practically only four con-
sonants, corresponding to the labial, dental, guttural,
and liquid sounds; the liquid sounds themselves are
often assignable to other groups.

The vowels, again, are liable to be changed at will,
within certain limits. For instance, we have the same
meaning expressed by pana, pena, piena, poina, puna;
(v. infra).

{It should be stated that in this essay the vowels of
Tasmanian words are to be read as if they were Italian.
This is probably not quite accurate, but sufficiently so
for our purpose, especially in view of the instability of
the Aboriginal speech-sounds.

Thus the number of possible syllables was very
small; but we shall see that, though small, it was sufh-
cient for the needs of the speakers. The long words of
our vocabularies can be cut up into syllables which are
the real words of the language.

In my essay on the Evolution of Words, part of
which I read before this Society in September, 1965, I
endeavoured to connect the original speech sounds with
definite psychic states and processes, and the principles
then enunciated seem to be strikingly illustrated in the
clearly primitive speech of Tasmania. I shall have occa-
sion to refer to them incidentally later on; for the pre-
sent, one example will suffice. On page 17, I wrote,
inter alia—'* Terms of endearment are essentially of ax
objective character, and require sounds of high pitch.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 53

The thin, bright sounds, t, 1, i, n, s, are typical of diminu-
tives, not only in nouns, but also in adjectives, and even
in verbs.’ Now, in Tasmania, we find ina, enna, itia as
suffixes indicating diminutives, analogous with the
German ing, the English kin, the French il, in, et, the
Italian illo, ino, etto.

The Tasmanian diphthongs may be divided into two
groups. H. Ling Roth gives au, oi, and ou, but omits
ie, ia, as he takes the 1 of the latter group to be a con-
sonantal i. The group au, oi, ou, to which we may add
oa, simply represent an unstable a or o, whereas 1a, ie,
ea, are developments of i or e, indicating a lengthening
im time or space, as expressed by delay, interval, or a
curve; Wina is a straight stick, wiena a bent or broken
one.

Of the consonants, the liquids alone are capable of
continuance ; they therefore fitly represent motion. We
find, accordingly, that lia (also in the forms of lena, liena,
lila) means missile, leg, water, bush fire, iguana, kan-
garoo, cat, gun, crow, movable shelter, nest, stone (mis-
sile or cutting tool); ria (also rene, riawe, riena, rina)
means toe, hand, finger, to polish, water, dance, kan-
garoo, rat, to run; ni, (also nina, nile, none, noana, nuna,
nuena), means you (1.e., away from me), no, hand, take
away, fire, flea, stone implement; mina (also mena,
manga, mana, meuna), means I, mine (1.e., towards me),
lips, beak, sick (restless), tongue, bird.

The labial consonants represent a sudden puff, a
sending forth of energy, and are therefore very appro-
priate for expressing action and purpose. ‘Thus we find
pa (also ba, wa, ma) as the general suffix of verbs; as
suffix, prefix, or infix, it expresses power, emphasis,
magnitude. Mana, mena, mina, meaning “ 1,’ may well
indicate, besides “‘ motion towards me,” the prime im-
portance men attribute to their own persons. It is in-
teresting to note that most European languages use me
or mi as the pronoun of the first person. We find,
further, that pena (also pana, penina, pina, poine, puna)
means lance, oar, laugh, fish, pointed, sharp, bird.

The dental consonants, pronounced by practically
shutting the teeth, indicate inclusion and exclusion, and
by their sound, a sudden stop or thud. Here, again,

54 THH SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

nina, nara, besides meaning “motion away from me,”
may indicate the non-ego, the outer world, 1e., you, he,.
she, they, that thing; ni or noi, similarly, may mean
negation, as well as “apart from.” Tana (also tawe, tia,
jiisaa, tienbug, tona, toni), means was (at a distant time),
depart, heap, mound, to add, vanish, sink, spark, call
@ a distance). Na) as “that thine,” is the) faemenall

suffix for nouns and adjectives, sometimes replaced by
ra or lia.

The guttural consonants may express disgust (as in:
the sound of retching), or something connected with the
dropping of the chin. For the former meaning we have:
the common suffix ak or ik, expressing diglitee, un-
pleasantness, also negation. For the latter we have
kana (also kami, kaiena, kuna), meaning mouth, teeth,
jaw, cheek, to speak, to sing, to reject.

It will be observed that in the examples given, only
the first consonant, with the following vowel or diph-
thong, enters into the argument.

The sounds r and | have other functions besides
that of indicating motion; they also denote emphasis,
especially the r. Of course, a moving thing has more
energy than a stationary one. In Norman’s vocabulary,
the letter r is very conspicuous; in most instances it is
merely a phonetic device to assure a correct pronuncia-
tion, but in others it probably indicates the throaty
bass-voices of the Aboriginal speakers.

This is practically the whole material of the speech
of the Tasmanian Aborigines. All things were distin-
guished according to two ideas, namely, rest and motion.
The liquid consonants expressed motion, and all the
others, rest. This is the explanation of the frequent
interchange of sounds within two groups. By a develop-
ment of psychic activity, it came to pass that the dental
sounds signified rest simply, the labials, rest attained
after motion, the gutturals, motion after rest, and the
liquids, simple motion. From these four groups, prac-
tically represented by four simple syllables, the whole
speech was formed, as will appear plausible from our
further demonstration.

There were so few things of interest to the Abo-
rigines, that they could easily express them by a small

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 55,

number of words. Of course, any particular thing could
not be denoted by their words except by the aid of
gestures and convention, as in the names of persons and
places. And this explains why the dialects were appa-
rently foreign to each other. What would in one tribe
be named after its speed, would in another take its name
from its habit or size. Indeed, I am inclined to hold,
against the current theory that the Tasmanians ‘had no:
generic names, that they had mo specific words, even
the proper nouns being made up of generic constituents.

In the examples given so far, we observed chiefly
the first consonant, with the following vowel which
made it audible, and took no heed of anything that came
after these.

The vowels were, as has already been pointed out,
so unstable as to be of no importance for our demon-
stration.

We will now proceed a step further, by adding
another consonant to the syllable, with or without
another vowel, as may be found convenient.

From the four primitive words we derive twelve
secondary terms, three from each. It is evident, from
what has been shown, that if the second consonant is
of the same class as the first, the result is merely a
strengthening of the first, by repetition. For instance,
lala, ant, is the swift runner; lane, to strike, flog, look,
is repeated or forcible motion towards some object;
mamana, tongue, is the repeatedly moving pointed
member; nala, manana, earth, the movable part of the
surface of the ground; nama, white man, the rover who
has no tribe to stay with; nami, a stone than can be
rolled or carried or thrown; ralla, frog, the swimming
and hopping thing, also energetic, full of movement;
Gene. Tun 7 tila, fingers : movable limbs.

The first syllables uttered by an infant are naturally
pawwa ima sand later, ma, ete.) Elence we have in wniost
languages words like baby, mama, papa, nana. In Tas-
manian, too, we have pawe, pawawe, little child; nina
mina, (my) mother, father.

We must ‘be careful to avoid mistaking the n of the
nominal suffix na for the final consonant of the previous
syllable, or vice versa.

56. THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

We shall have therefore the following twelve com-
binations—liquid+labial, liquidtdental, liquidt guttural,
labialtdental, labialtguttural, labialtliquid, dental+
guttural, dentaltliquid, dentaltlabial, guttural tliquid,
gutturaltlabial, gutturaltdental. Vhese may be illus-
trated as follows :— :

(1) Liquidt+labial—motion+purpose: lapa, wing;
lapri, see, leipas) lopa, res lepena, eyes) lepinas: lepeman
neck; lewana, wind; lube, sheoak tree (the best fire-
wood) ; lupari, free.

Mapa, black, the darkness moving over the sky and
earth, (we have also lewara, night); mebia, moving away.

Newina, eat; newitie, kangaroo; niparana, face;
nubra, nupre, eye; nubena, crayfish (motion and purpose
are shown in the claws).

Rabalga, hand (the member which takes); roba, to
rush; ruwa, sand-lark ; roba and ruwa are eels oe
ro+pa, i.e., moving quickly or energetically.

(2) Liquid+dental—motion ‘rest : lottasyitrees (inal
grows and then remains at rest); lutana, moon (whence
comes the light that rests on the earth), hence light, as
in ludo-wine, white man.

Mata, round like a ball (whirling and then fixed);
mata, dead, to die (moving and then still); meta, rope or
sinew (used for eee movable things); mutta, bird
(from its plumpness ; the mutton-bird is probably the
mutta-bird).

Nata, earth, soil (remaining still after being moved);
nutiak, to retch (the suffix ak denoting the unpleasant
feeling and the peculiar sound).

Retena, heart (with its intermittent motion); riatta,
tree (like lotta); rudana, lazy (when in motion, longing
for rest); rutta, hard, dry (dried fluid, e.g, mud or
blood).

(3) Liquid+guttural—motion* rejection ; lagana, foot
(put on the ground and lifted up again); laguana, to
burn oneself (withdrawing from une, the fire); legana,
lugana, water (moving away in stream and ebb); legara,
to run away; legunia, dress or covering (remov able and
warm—une); logune, to cut (making one shrink owing

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. oF

to the burning sensation, v. laguana) ; loigana, snake, the
flery serpent.

Magra, megra, day, grass (i.e., that which passes
away); mengana, to pull, get (move away from its
place); miengpa, to abstain, reject; moga, moka, water;
monga, a fly (which is ever ready to go away);
mugra, to hide oneself; mukra, spaniel (the swimming
beast); mungena, ear (projecting from the head, and ort-
ginally movable).

Nangumora, (very) far; nenga, canoe (for leaving
the land); noki, give me (you give away something):
nugara, to drink: nugrina, to vomit (both involving
motion of the gullet).

Raka, spear (sent forth); ragi or ragina, white man
(the hostile, repulsive moving thing). We find this in-
terpretation confirmed by the word ragi-rappa, a demon
who attacks people, a devil; we remember the Chinese
denotation of white men as “foreign devils”; rugara,
ear (compare mungena); rurga, seaweed used for food
(compare nugara, nugrina).

(4) Labial+dental—projection+rest: patina, egg;
patrolla, spark, fire (projected, resting); rolla, energetic;
there may also be a connection with “crackling ”;
piterina, sun (as-to its rays); poiete, head (projecting
irom the body, but stationary); potta malitie, freestone
(white stone that can be thrown—malitie, white).

(5) Labialtguttural—projectionrrejection: pagra,
alas! (an utterance of pain); pakara, to fling at (mo-
tion and dislike) ; pakaria, shooting-star ; pakaritia, ignis
fatuus; panga, leech (an attacking, repulsive thing);
pangana, mud (clinging and disagreeable); pegara, to
throw; pegi, teeth (acting against each other); pugana,
black man, good at attack and defence, hence strong,
stout; pugana, five (the “bunch of fives’’); pugara, to
swim.

(6) Labial+liquid—projectiont motion: palla, round,
bail, energetic, large, stout, sun; palina, egg (small and
round); palana, stars, little sun; pallawa, man, warrior
(with wa as suffix of emphasis); penna, spear, man,
facetious ; piena, leech; poiinta, poienna, point of spear;

58 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

parawe, to throw, put, go away; parapa or paraba, whale,
porpoise (large, moving); perena (spear); poirina, por-
poise; pora, heavy rain; proie, leaf; pruana, smoke.

(7) Dental+guttural—resttrejection: takani, tagara,
to go away (to lift up the foot from its resting epee 5
dogna (== tagana), foot; takira, root, foot of tree; tang
funipet; tegana, heart (its beating being like hyena
footsteps); togane, paw, foot; tokana, heel; tugra,
thigh ; tugana, “switt (of foot); tuganik, asleep (the pejo-
rative, iE implying negation; tugana, to eat (passing
from rest to the motion of the cullet).

(8) Dentalrliquid—resttmotion: tale, toad, froge
(alternately resting and moving); talina, the back (un-
changing, but moving as part of the body); talpe, to
come, start off; tile, basket (an inanimate thing meant
to be carried); toline, bark of a tree (grown fast to the
trunk, but liable to peel off); toluna, shoulder (compare
talina); tula, thigh, tongue (fixed, but movable).

Tema, hut (movable resting place) ; time, never (really
“ always,’ “resting or moving’’; compare the French
jamais, which also means “always” (from the Latin
jam, magis, 1.e., now and evermore, and is used for
never»); tome tomall

Tana, was (looking back from the present moment) ;
tanate, mischief (pretending to be resting, and yet mov-
ing to do some harm); tene, rib (compare talina); tena,
tree-fern (stationary, but growing); toni, tenine, nails on:
fingers and toes (compare tena); tina, stomach (compare
tila)? LOnay spare, tone, tovdivie, tall : tone romcallalo
cause to move); tuna, winter, really “snow ” (the solid,
falling thing); tunapi, to know (to have the skill to act).

Tara, to weep, really “to sit down and sway the body
in token of grief’; tara, tree (compare tena); tara, wal-
laby (compare tale); teri, basket (compare tile); terana,
terina, bones of skeleton (compare tene). The bones of
the body are stationary, but growing. In the skeleton
they are chiefly noticeable for being hard and dry. This
meaning is transferred to teruna, tro-watta, flint imple-
ment; torona, tree, is a form of tra-na; tru, fist is so:
called from its bony hardness; tura, winter; turana,,
snow ; turela, hail, are forms of tuna.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 59°
(9) Dental+labial—restt projection: tapa, ham; tab-
rina (== tapa-rina), the back, a prolongation of the ham;
tepara, come; tipla, eyebrow; tapleti, tabelti, to travel;
this word is supposed to be an imitation of the English
equivalent, but it 1s not probable that that word was
used so frequently as equivalent of “to walk,” that
practically all the tribes incorporated it in their vocabu-.
lary. According to our theory, tapleti is simply tap-
let-i, ie., the hams alternately moving forward and
resting; takleti would refer to the same action of the:
legs or the feet; but we find numerous instances of the
group pl, and very few of the group kl; the latter seems:
to have been difficult or disagreeable to the Tasmanians ;
tapleti would make an excellent substitute for the ob-
jectionable takleti. The probability of the exchange is.
confirmed by the alternative form kableti for tablett.

(10) Gutturalrliquid—rejectiont+motion: kole, to
twitch, snatch away; koliena, orphan, whose parents
have been taken away. In further confirmation of our
remark regarding the group kl, we find that these two.
words are practically alone in beginning with the syllable
Kal kel) kkolt ete:

Kami, mouth, teeth, tongue, probably owes its k to
the movement of the chin (v. supra); we find many
words belonging to this meaning of km, but very few
signifying rejection. Of the latter, however, we have a
characteristic one; komptena, a spirit of evil, objection-
ably moving near to human beings, tena being akin to
tanate, mischief (v. supra).

Kana, voice, noise, song, speech, evidently belongs

73 OL OS) 9 Y, ’ Soy
to the “ chin” group of k sounds. H. Ling Roth's lists
give no kan words of the other; indeed, the number of
words beginning with k is comparatively small; the
sound of rejection is usually found at the end of a word.

Krakne, krakena, to rest, sit down, is made up of
kara and the negation k and the suffix ne or ena, which
properly belongs to nouns; kara-k would then mean
“disagreeable motion? No!” We find kroti (quick
motion), kronie (to climb), both implying exertions
which the Aborigines disliked.

(11) Guttural+labial—rejectiont projection: kupa,
good (to give or take). We find kapugi-lia, mouth, and

60 THH SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

kepegine, to eat, but these are evidently composed of
ka, jaw, and pegi, teeth.

(12) Gutturaltdental—rejectiontrest: kate, kaita, bad
(1.e., do not like it, leave it alone) ; katala, snake, the bad
moving thing; katela or katila, seal, and katina, cow,
would also be so called if the Aborigines were at first
afraid of them; kote, quick, is akin to kroti (v. supra),
but there is a curious development of the idea in koti,
little, kaita, dog (small beast), the idea of quickness and
smallness being easily associated, and from the idea of
*“ small” we readily pass to that of “ pet.” Compare also
“cat” and kitten.”” Again, there is a connection between
koti and kate (v. supra); as the Aborigines called a good
or great man pallawa or pugana, they would naturally
call a little thing, kate, bad. Kotube, to tug at a rope,
is expressive of the resistance of an inert mass to the
action of pulling (— be or pe).

The examples here given will suffice for the purpose
of illustrating the principle; their number might easily
have been augmented. In some cases the same word
was made to serve in two places. This was done because
there was a plausible alternative, and because it is quite
possible that different speakers named the same thing
on slightly different principles. The orthography is that
of H. Ling Roth’s lists: phonetic, not always consistent,
but sufficiently accurate for our present purpose.

It will have been noticed that the interchange of
kindred sounds is not detrimental to the clearness of the
meaning of words, and that the vowels are remarkably
variable.

Before we proceed to the illustration of our theory
in the case of longer words, it will be necessary to draw
special attention to the variation of speech sounds.
Here it is difficult to decide in each case whether the
variation is due to the general instability of the
Aboriginal orthoepy, or to the difference of dialects, or
to the insincerity of the Aborigines, who would prob-
ably not be eager to deprive themselves of the means
of secret communication with each other, or to the de-
fective perceptivity of the recorders, or to their linguistic
idiosyncrasies, or to careless writing or transcription of
the original records, or to the printer or his reader.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 6r

Still, in most instances, the differences and analogies,
taken together, are sufficiently consistent to allow us
to formulate some general rules.

We must remember, also, that the language did not
spring into existence in the form recorded, though it
did, no doubt, begin in a form completely satisfying
all the requirements at that time. If my theory is cor-
rect, the four words on which all the rest are built show
an absolutely primitive form of human speech; previous
to it there can have been no linguistic thought, and
the utterance must have been confined to inarticulate
animal cries. The subsequent word-formation was a
subconscious operation, based on heredity, environment,
and habit turned to instinct.

‘The primitive state in which the Tasmanian Abo-
rigines were found by the Europeans, argues that their
losical skill had been confined to the immediate needs
of their bodies, and that their language was in a simi-
larly primitive state. The four words still sufficed to.
express their thoughts, and thus their recorded speech
carries us back to the beginning of human society.

Thus, the four syllables form the permanent skeleton
of the Tasmanian language, and their combinations and
variations are the body, which is specifically different
in each individual, though generically it is the same in
all.

We may now state some general principles of varia-
tion :—

(1) Medial and initial g is often elided, replaced by w
or y, ot represented by @ Oi Whe

This phenomenon is observed in several European.
languages, ranging from Greek to English. In Tas-
manian we have, e.g., proguna and pruana, smoke;
pruga, paruga, bosom; perenna, spear; and proina,
proigh, proingha, broii, proibi, big; ganna and yanna,
teeth ; ngune, une, wane, fire; kana, wana, ona, to speak.

(2) The places of the vowels are chosen arbitrarily.

We may have prosthetic vowels, as in ali, good,
which seems identical with li, moving, alive, useful;
anamana, hand, from namana, strong; enganema, eagle
hawk, from ngonina, bird, which is in itself derived from.
naganina or laganina, the small, flapping thing.

‘62 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

Again, we have regularly an epithetic vowel, a, e, or
1; every word is an example of this.

Within the word, the vowels found places where they
could. We have treinia, terinia, taranienna, triunia for
“hard-beaked bird,’ e.g., owl, crow; ria, rilia, riena,
raiana, for hand; raumpta and raumata, for wombat;
pengana, panugana, pugrena, pugerinna, for dirt; lan-
gana, languna, lugana, langna, dogna, lagerra, for foot;
lowanna, nowana, lowa, loanna, loa, loalla, lowla, for
woman; leni, loa, liena, lia, lina, for water.

(3) Within their respective groups, the consonants
may be freely interchanged. This has already been
touched upon, and will be further illustrated in the
sequel.

IIl—ETYMOLOGY.

It is beyond the scope of our present research to
examine all the words recorded by H. Ling Roth, whose
list, as has already been stated, may be considered as
practically complete. It will be sufficient to deal with
such a number of them as will enable a critic to test our
‘theory

We shall take Norman’s list for the: Eastern speech,
and Miiligan’s for the Southern, Eastern, and North-
Western and Western words. Unfortunately Milligan
did not discriminate between the last two dialects, but
this is not of great importance, as they have much in
common with each other.

We shall find some instances of onomatopoetic
words, such as pratteratta, hail, from which we get
paratta, ice, frost; but we need not do more than
acknowledge the existence of such words, as their con-
nection with our theory is remote, and possibly merely
accidental.

Nor need we take notice of evidently interjectional
words, for we are not now concerned with the origin of
language generally, but with the elements and develop-
ment of the speech of the Tasmanian Aborigines.

I have dissected some 1,200 Tasmanian words, but
shall confine my present discussion to a much smaller
number of characteristic specimens, taking, them, gene-
rally, in alphabetical order.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. (a

TEE HAST BRING SBE Cre
Bungana, chief—same as pugana.
Bairkutana, horse—par, big; kut, quick; na, nominal
suffix. ;

Kumienna, weak—kami, voice; ienna, diminutive
suffix.

Karana, quiet—ka, not; ra, moving.

Kukanna, noise, much talk—kana, voice; ku, redu-
plication for emphasis.

Krawala, cold—kra, stiff; wala—palla, very much.

Kanara, little (child), magpie—kan, voice; ra, con-
tinuous.

Kanaliria, conversation—kan, voice; li, quick; ri,
continuous.

Kamina, chin—ka, Jaw; mina=-pena, projection.

Kuegi, head—ka ka, mouth, jaw, cheeks; the whole
face; round; spherical.

Kanawelegana, sing—kan, voice; we, active; leg,
rhythmical.

Komtina, dog—ka(m), teeth ; tin, projecting.

Kaitagunamena, friend—ka, tongue; tag, foot;
namdana, hand (in my service).

Kulugana, claw, talon; ka, tooth, (of the) lug, foot.

Kawurrina, bush fire—ka, eating up; wur=pur,
solid, ground.

lNotruolutie, baby—kot, little; ruo-nug, drink,
suck ; lut, white; ie, diminutive. Query: Were the voung
babies of paler complexion than the adults? It is the
case elsewhere.

Koti malitie, young boy or girl—koti, young; ma==
pa, very; lit, bright, fair; ie, diminutive.

Lia litea, ocean—li, water; lit, bright, sparkling
ripples; ia, diminutive. This appears also in the form
of lieltia, rollers on the beach (with white crests).

Liopakanapuna, salt—lia, sea; pug, solid; peun,
sharp, burning.

Lagapak, fiddle—lag, leg, stick, bow; pa, moving;
k, not getting away; or simply pa ka, moving forward
and backward.

64. THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

Liawe, open—li, move; we, let, make.

Leiemtoniak, ashamed—len, look; ton, downwards ;
i bas

Lackaniampaoik, bandy-legged—lag, leg; nia, bent;
pe, stick; k, bad.

Leiriak, bitter—li, water; ri, restless (of the sea); k,
bad.

Leware, night—lug, lie; war, ground.

Lalina, day—tin, see; 1, reduplicated, plenty.

Lila, gun, waddy—li li, very swift, flying.

Lowanakana, circle—low, woman; kan, sing; the
singing women standing or sitting in a circle.

Langta, long, far—len, move on; t stop: a distant
point.

Luga perenna, survivor—lug, walk away; pe, very;
ren, quickly.

Lugana, foot, oyster—the oyster lies flat lke the
sole of the foot.

Lowa, woman—lug, foot; wa, active; the woman had
to do all the work of the tribe except hunting and fight-
ing.

Lingena, languna, loangare, likangana, likura—wind,
to blow; len, continuous motion.

Lietinna, cold water—li, water; tuna, cold.

Liena peuniak, scalding water—li, water; pe, very;
un, fire; k, bad.

Lenigugana, stars—len, see; kuka, round things.

Miengpa, abstain—mien=wien, bend, turn away
from, not; pa, doing.

Mianabere, kneel—mien, bend; pere, leg.
Mealle, kneel—imial, bend; leg, leg.

Mealli tonerragetta, inactive—mealli, knee; to(ka),
heel; narra, very; kita, small, useless.

Mikrakaniak, sick—mie, not; kraka, rest, sleep; k,
bad.

Miengkommenechana, anger—mien, distorted, pro-
jecting ; kamina, chin; kana, speak.

Munnagana, ankle—mien, bend; leg, foot.

Malitie, white—ma—pa, very; lut, shining.

Mientonka, tumble—mien, bend, knee; ton, fall; k,
bad.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 65.

Mienintiak, tremble—mien, bend ; inti—inni, a little;
ey Tovaels

Marana, battle (few killed)—pa, hit; ren, run.

Monna perenna, sulky, pouting—muna, lips;
perenna, projecting.

Manina langatik, steal—ma==mie, not; nina, yours;
langt (take) far away; k, bad.

Malangena, child—Ma—mie, not; lag, foot, move,.
walk; in, dimin.

Manugana, spawn of frog—perhaps the same as
malangena, with a possible change from ina (dear little
one), to kana, croaker.

Miamengana, battle—mien mien, knee to knee; kana,
yell.

Mienemiento, kill—mien, mien, battle; t, stop, strike
down.

Mungwenia, grub—mien, bend; wen=pen, stick;
i, small.

Mungena, ear — mung — mien = pen, projecting,
round.

Mongana, blowfly

Mungunna, fish—mung-winna, round and long.

Mungienna, porcupine—mung-tenna, round and
little.

Mingawina, porpoise

Mugana, shag (bird)—mung, round, plump; it may
also be a doublet of nagana, lagana, flapping thing, bird.

Mana, a fly—man-a, round, or a contraction of mon-
gana.

Makana, star-fish—mag—mung, round. The transi-
tion from man to mang and then to mag is quite natural.

Ni, there, behold! with emphatic k—neka, niga,
there ; with emphatic r—nara, very, he, she, they, self.

Mung, round.

V. mungunna.

Nune, take—ni, ni, there!

Numbe, here—ni, ni, pe, here indeed; lumbe is a.
doublet of this.

Nunamara, deduct—Nune, take; mare, one.

Nentega meniawa, yesterday—ni ni, not at all; teg,
sleep ; mi, I; ni, you; wa, do—when last we were awake-

Naniakana, growl—kana, saying; ni ni, no! no!

66 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

Nietta mina, little brother—ni, you; etta, little ; mina,
my own, my own little one.
Nianti mina, little sister—nia nitia mina, the same.
Nunalmina, father—ni, you; al, good; mina, my
own!
Nienna, mother—ni, you; enna, dear little mother.

Neingmina, mother—nienna mina, my own little
mother. The addition of the endearing term mina to
these words shows again the affectionate, childlike dis-
position of the Aborigines.

Nelumie, help—ni, you; lumbe=numbe, here.

Nuna mina, good—ni ni, these things; mina, for me!
Noile, bad—no ali, not good.

Nierina, hawk—nie=-mie, in a circle; rin, flying.
Narra muna, yes—narra, that; muna, projecting,
evident.

Nebele, music—ne=le, lively; pe, make; leg, feet.

Oana, tell, speak—probably from kana; wana would
be better spelling; there are so few words in o that they
are probably misprints.

Punie, finger nail—doublet of toni (supra).

Plegana, leg—pa, strong; leg, leg.

Pugali, swim—puga, man; li, water.

Poingana, hair—pen, spear, stick; hair dressed in
form of sticks.

Puganina, husband—puga, man; nina, that—that
man, ~ he.’

Patrollana, musket—patrol, fire; len, flying.

Poiniakana, laugh, facetious—pe, sharp; ia, little;
kan, sounds:

Pugoneori, .-smile—pe, sharp; kan, voice; ali, kind,
good.

Rinneaguanettia, dispute—rin, quick; ia, short; kan,
words; ettia, trifling things. The form guan for kan sup-
plies the missing link of the series kan, guan, wan, oan.

Riawieak, full (after a meal)—ria, feet; pe, active;
ak, with difficulty.

Rinieta, chase—rin, run; ia, hither and thither; t,
stop—run till you have it.

Riakuna, dance and song—ria, foot; kana, voice; an
Aboriginal ballad.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 67

Tonna, fire, literally, spark—compare with tuna,
snow. These contraries have parallels in European lan-
guages, e.g., French frire, German frieren, Italian caldo,
English cold. It is interesting to find the phenomenon
in Tasmanian. Originally tonna, a contraction of tonina,
would be a “small, falling thing, and in this respect
woud! coincide with tuna, snow.

Tonipeprinna, spark—ton1, fire; pe, prinna, fly.

Tentia, red, topaz—ton, fire; itia, dimin.—somewhat
likes tae:

Tugana, eat—toka, footstep, periodic downward mo-
tion. It is possible that tonna, fire, is a contraction of
this, as it ‘eats up” everything.

Tone, dive—simply “falling,” or else “going down
with jerky motions.”

Tughenapuniak, lean—tug, eat; pun, full; ak, no use.

Weba, weipa, wigetina, wina, winalia, wieta, wita—
sun, moon; weiba, wiba, wibia, wieba, man; wia, wiena,
wigena, Wina, wiwina, winanana, wood, twig. The com-
mon root is pe—strong, moving, projecting.

Wuga, wutta, wughta, earth; pug, solid; ta, sta-
tionary.

Warra-na, bark of tree, shell, anything curved, blue
sky, vault, cloud shape, ghost; pura, pulla, round.

TEE SOUTHERN SPE GE:

The words bear the same general character as those
of the Eastern speech. The separate list is given be-
cause Milligan and Norman based the distinction on the
domicile of the Aborigines they examined, and because
slight differences of pronunciation may thus be dis-
cerned. It is now impossible to assign shades of mean-
ing to particular tribes; but this is immaterial, as the
meaning of speech sounds varied in every individual,
within definite limits, of course.

Koka, ruddy cheeks, blood, red. ‘This is a redupli-
cated ka, chin; it would refer to the strikingly red colour
of the gums, tongue, etc., and thus assume the general
meaning of. “red.” We have seen kuegi, head, from
the same kaka, as the sum of these parts; but its mean-
ing was there referred to shape and position, not to
colour.

68 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

Kokata, moan, howl—kan, voice, repeated, with t to
express the sobs. )

Kawuta, evening—ka, red; wutta, earth, at the
horizon.

Kraka wughata, stand up—kraka, rest, stand; wug-
ha==pug, firm; ta, stationary. In the East, we find
wuga, wughta, for “ earth.”

Krugana wughata, aloft—wughata, ground; krugana
appears also as kroana, to climb, soar; the phrase means
“to climb from the ground.’ In the Eastern speech
we find kronie; this might argue that the more primt-
tive forms were characteristic of the South, but the evi-
dence on this point is conflicting; for instance, we have
a Southern tannatea (crazy) to compare with the
Eastern tagantienna. :

Lia mena, lake—lia, water; mien, round, enclosed.

Legara, run—-compare legana (supra); the suffix ra
often takes the place of na in the South.

Line, house, hut, nest, place—some movable shelter.

Line rotali, encampment—line, abode; rot, dry; ali,
suitable.

Loini, liena, bush fire—moving slowly (note the
diphthongs).

Lugga kanna, step—lug, foot; kan, sound.

Luggara, fun, sport, dance—lug, foot.

Lunghana, strike, flog, beat—as the ground is struck
with the foot. .

Lungana, kill—the result of the stroke.

Longhana, longana, sleep—like death.

Lungana, swift—of foot.

Lughra, heat—from running; compare Eastern
magra, day. .

Lughrata, hot—lugra, heat; t, stationary, permanent.

Lughoratah, summer—doublet of lughrata.

Leghro-mena, perspire—Legro, heat; pen, projec-
ting, exuding.

Mattawebe, firewood—matta, dead; weba, stick.

Mungara, flint—pug, solid. This word also appears
as mughra and mora.

Mughra malli, topaz—pug, solid; pa-lut, very bright.

Mora trona, flint—pug, solid; tro, hard.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 69

Mabbile, altogether, quite, many—pa pel, very round,
strong, numerous; compare English “ roundly,” “ round
number.”

Moi, mie, mungie, dead—FE astern mien, bent, round,
return, not, heap, sick, feeble.

Moimabbile, battle—Moi, dead; mabbile, many.

Moimutte, skirmish—moi, dead; mutt, heap, 1e.,
few ; if there were many, they could not be seen at once,
as if in a heap.

Matta, mutta, moatta, round, heap, spherical, pigeon,
plump—pug, solid; t, stationary; compare wugata. The
series is pugata, wugata, mugata, moata, muta, mata; as
variant, munga.

Munghe mabbleli, a load—mungie, heap; mabbile,
big.

Mie luggrata, fever—mie, sick; luggra, hot; ta, lie
down.

Mene ruggera, acrid—me, I[; ne, not; nugara, drink;
compare Eastern tugana.

Moie, muie, muggena, lips, nose—compare the
Eastern muna, lips. The two liquids, if they were cer-
tain to belong to the root, would well represent the
movable parts of the face; we have the Eastern mun-
genna (ear) and mongtena (eye) to confirm this con-
jecture. Then, again, we have the Eastern mokena,
water, which might refer us to the moist parts of the
head. Finally, we have mien, curved, which might refer
to the curved outlines of lips, nose, ears, etc.

Nun oine, a greeting—nune, there; wi--pe, active;
ne, you.

Nire, good—nara, the very thing (needed), whence
also—to heal.

Nirabe, correct—nara, that; pa, indeed; that is it!

Narrawa, yes—doublet of nirabe.

Neka, there—ne, that; ka, yonder.

Neggana, another—neka, that; na, that thing.

Naba, other—na, yonder thing; pa, indeed.

Nubre, eye—doublet of lebrena, leprena, a missile;
the power of vision sent forth lke a lance; compare
“ shooting glances.”

Narramoiewa, enough—Narra, that: moi, to me; wa,
will do.

70 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

Oghnemipe, answer—o, prosthetic; kan, speak; mi,
HO) MSZ DS, CO:

In the Vocabulary, p. xx., we find oghnamilce, ask,
which H. Ling Roth endeavours to improve to ogna-
milii (p. Ixix.). The true solution is on p. xx., where we
find oghnemipe, answer. The oghnamilce is thus evi-
dently a badly transcribed ognamibe. An interesting
variant of the word is oangana, inform, tell, evidently a
form of kan-kan-a, speak with emphasis.

Pakara, fling—pa, forcibly; kara, throw away.

Papalawe, swallow (bird)—-pe pe, very much; li,
moving ; we, active.

Papla, big—pa pal, very round, stout, strong.

Panubre, sun—pa, big, powerful; nubre, eye.

Pallanubrana, sun—pa, big; la, round, moving;
nubra, eye.

Papatongune, thunderstorm—pa pat, loud crash,
(onomatopoetic), ngune, fire; or else—pa pa, very big;
ton, falling.

Poimatelina, lightning—pe, strike; mate, dead; lina,
like a spear.

Pawe, small, rascal—pe pe, mere dot, small; com-
pare German knabe, boy, and English knave, of no ac-
count.

Pawawe, small boy—pe pe pe, just a series of dots.

We may also refer these two words to the “ baby ” group
(v. supra).
Panubratone, dusk—panubra, sun; tone, set.

Panga, pinga, leech, small caterpillar—pena, lance
shape.

Putia, none—paw, little; itia, dimin.; less than little,
infinitely small, practically nothing. Here we have a
curious possibility of the instinctive perception of the
mathematical theory of limits. “ Nothing,” being an ab-
stract idea, was beyond the grasp of the Aboriginal
mind.

Puda, smoke—putia, unsubstantial.

Patingunabe, extinguish—pat, stamp ; onomatopetic,
though it fits in with our “projectiontrest’’; ngune,
fire; be, do.

Poina, hair (dressed in sticks)), fragrance (issuing
forth), entrails (in long strings), pettish (ready to take

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. ak

the offensive), facetious (compare “shafts of wit”),
pune, bird (shooting through the air), pena, lance.

Poenghana, laugh—pen, facetious; kan, voice.

Pallakanna, shout—mighty voice.

Poiete, head—pena, erect figure; ita, stop, end,
diminished.

Poetarunna, skull—poet, head; ren, running,
smooth.

Poetakannapawenea, whisper—poet, head; kan,
voice; paw, small; ne, away, towards someone.

Poieta kannabe, talk—poet, head; kan, voice; be,
active.

Poira kunnabea, talk—a doublet of the same; instead
Of ita we have the rarer diminutive ira; ina is more
common; bea, like nea in the previous word, has an
epithetic a.

ialanna, air, breeze—ri, moving; len, along.

Rallana proiena, gale—rallana——rialanna; proiena,
big. Rallana may also have affinity with ralla, strong.

Rotuli, long, tall—rot, dry, hard; li, long: grass. We
may also refer it to rot, dry grass, ali, good.

Ranna murina, inactive—ren, move; mur, heavy; in,
somewhat: somewhat heavy or slow in moving.

Ranga, knee—ren, flexible joint.

Raggamutta, lame—ranga, knee; mutta, thick, stiff.

Roatta, hurt, injured—from raga wutta—raga mutta.

Ruete, lazy—doublet, of roatta.

Riatta, gum tree—motionless thing, standing stiff-
kneed.

Retakunna, creak (of limbs of trees)—riatta, tree;
kan, voice, sound.

Tramutta, pebble—tra, hard; mutta, thick, round.

Trowatta, pebble—doublet of tramutta.

Tawe, tape, takawbi, go—taka, heel; pe; active.

Tikotte, hunger—tug, eat; kote, quickly, eagerly-
doublet of Eastern tuna.

Turra, winter, snow
Toina, hawk, pelican; tanna, owl; tene, rib—doublets
of pene, lance.

Uratte, frost, hoar-frost—doublet of waratte, paratte
(Eastern).

72 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

Una, fire—doublet of wina, stick, firewood; or of
ngune, from nagana, the “eater up,’ or even from
ngonina, nagana, the flickerer, flapper.

Ughana kanna nire, true—oana, speak; kan, word;
nire, good.

Warra, bark of tree—palla, round, shell, “ pallium.”

Warrane, blue sky—warra, vault.

Warrena, warrentinna, cloud in sky—warra, rounded
mass; tin, extensive.

Waratte, hoar-frost. There seems to be an interest-
ing interchange of meanings. Paratta, waratta are
onomatopoetic, from the prattling noise of hail or the
crackling of icicles; but the ice forms a covering, like
bark, and so we have the warra family of words, in touch
with palla, parra, round.

Warrawa, spirit of the dead—warra, cloud, appari-
tion ; wa, active.

Wina, fuel, stick, taste, feel, try, wake—pena, stretch
out, active.

Wia lutta, red charcoal
shining.

wia, wood; lut, bright,

THE WESTERN AND NORTH-WESTERN
SERB CE:

Here we have some striking characteristics, different
from those of the Eastern and Southern words; but,
when allowance has been made for these, the words are
found to be essentially the same.

We notice at once a softer pronunciation of the con-
sonants, b, d, g, for the Eeastern p, t, k. We also have
the nominal suffix, lea, to take the place of the Eastern
na. As a specimen of the extraordinary spelling occa-
sionally used by the recorders, we may note 1-aynghlalea
(bad), which seems to stand for the Eastern wiena-na
(crooked). Such spelling might make the whole of the
record doubtiul but for the fact that there is a certain
consistency underlying the spelling, which enables us to
establish fairly reliable conclusions. We must bear in
mind that the climate and physiographical features of the
West and North-West are singularly like those of the
West of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and we need not
be surprised if the intonation and articulation of the

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 73

speech of Western Tasmania bears some analogy to
that of the Gaelic, Welsh, and Erse. The following
words are assigned to the North-West :—

Eribba, cockatoo—e, prosthetic; li, flying; pa, active.

Kocha, swan—ka ka, repeated cries; or like Southern
kuegi, round.

Karkuka, parrot—ka ka ka, the same; the cries
would prevail in this case.

Kaumilea, evening—compare Southern kawuta, red
ground.

Kunrare, much talk—kan, voice, jaw; re-re, con-
tinually moving.

Kunmunera, much talk—kan, noise; mun, mouth;
ra, continuous.

Talba, devil; Eastern palla wa—strong, active, man,
fighter.

Terriga, walk—toka, foot, with r as infix of motion.

Loyoranna, wind—li, swift; ren, moving.

Murdunna, star—par, pal, sun; tinna, diminutive.

Loina, sun—len, radiator, eye.

Longa, ground—lug, resting place.

From the Western Vocabulary we take :—

Benkelo, bullock—This form of pakalla, with the
native infix n, seems strong evidence against the deriva-
tion from “ bullock.”

Belanilea, shadow—pal, solid; ni, not; lea, suffix.

Boabennitia, grin, make faces—pa, make; pen,
laugh; itia, playfully.

Gannemerara, come here—kan, call; me, 1; ran, run.

Gdulla, acid, sour—kot, little; ali, good.

Gnimuckle, aged—kan, teeth; mu, lips; k, bad; le,
suffix.

Illetiape, rouse him—i, prosthetic; le, quick; tape,
-come. .

Marama, star—pal, sun; inna, little.

Lulla, foot—tlug, foot; lea, suffix.

Lugh, foot—lug, without suffix.

Lola, gun—le-na, spear, striking at a distance.

74. THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

Lullabi, loallibe, ship—tulla, foot, oar-beat;; pe,
active.

Lugra nire, right foot—lug-na, foot; nire, good. It
is significant that a distinction of usefulness was
made between the right foot and the left. In Muilli-
gan’s list, we find in the Eastern Vocabulary—luggana
elibana, right foot; lug, foot; ali, good; pa, strong,
luaggan aoota, left foot; lug, foot; wutta, heavy. In
the Southern—lugga worina, right foot; lug, foot;
war—pal, strong; lugga oangta, lug, foot, wang—pen,
Stick, stiff; ta, stop, mot elastic’ fm the Westenm
and North-Western—malleare, right foot; pal, strong:
lea sultix re) mo0vine Tools oclanynecale-amlens
foou, pus, Loot. lea, Sitti.) ta, tot clastic lomsmlonm
ali, good. We note also the shortening of the syllables
in the Western words.

Lialarragonna, sneeze—lia, quick; lanna, sharp;
kana, sound.

Lanne, strike—len, swift motion. .

GENE RAE VOCAB UIE AY?

The NUMERALS are given by H. Ling Roth thus
(Pp. 133) —

ONE—marawah, mara, marrawan, borar, parmere,
pammere, marai, par-me-ry.

TWO—piawah, poi-erinna, pyanerbarwar, calaba-
wah, boulah, katabouve, bura, cal-a-ba-wa.

THREE—luwah, wyandirwar, aliri, cardia.

FOUR —pagunta, wullyawah, cardia.

FIV E—pugeana, marah, karde, kardia.

TEN—karde-karde.

According to my theory of the Tasmanian speech,
these words are far less perplexing than they appear
here, and would show that the Aboriginals had no con-

ception of abstract numbers, but merely of such notions
as big, little, arm, hand.

Anything noticed individually or rather, “ pointed
at,’ was pa, in some form or other, with emphatic repe-
tition and nominal suffix ra or na.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 75,

In the case of the hand or fist, a collection of five
fingers which could be displayed or hidden, puga-na
(solid, strong) would be the natural expression, while
“four ” would be a hand with the thumb invisible, that
is stopping short of completeness, expressed by pugan-
ta, fist cut short. °

ce 3)

Miniane mmole am@igns: tive: qs salCOumtnemnconmaplete
thing, one fist made up of five fingers,” therefore palla,
round, strong.

The number three would be expressed by the word
for “arm,” the limb with three parts, two for the arm
and one for the hand; lu-pa, li-pa, strong limb, and the
reduplicated a-li-ri, limb with hand, are words for
“ Qitem gyal WO ie 7 aire

The number two was also beyond the grasp of the
Aboriginals. They could see a thing divided into two
or more parts which were smaller than the whole had
been. Now, “small” was expressed, as we have seen,
by pawe and by koti or kata, and we find these words,
in some form, in all the numbers after unity. As an
alternative, we find for “two” boulah or bura; these
are forms of pala (big), and express the duad as an in-
crease in bulk, not as a cutting up into smaller parts.

Wullyawah (four) is another form of this, with the
magnifying or perhaps duplicating pa as suffix.

The diphthong in piawe, which we see again in
poierinna, pyanerbarwar, wyandirwar, may well indicate
a splitting up of a whole by the change from the single
vowel sound to a composite one.

Calabawah is probably a misprint for katabawa,
which is simply kata + pawe; we note the form kata-
bouve in confirmation of this conjecture.

Karde, or its diminutive form kardia, is simply kate
(small); the more parts there are the smaller will be
their size.

Using uniform orthography, we get, therefore, the
numerals in these forms :—

ONE—pala-pa, pala, palapa, pala, pa-pala, papala,
pala, papala.

~6 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

TWO—piawe, piawe-r-inna (with euphonic infix r
and diminutive suffix), pia-na-pawe, kata pawe, pala,
kata pawe, pala, kata, pawe.

We note the frequency of the duplication of the
whole word, most appropriate in this case, and not
found in any other number but “ten,” which means
~ two fives.”

THREE—ri-pa, pia-na-pa, li-ri, katia.
FOU R—pagan-ta, pal-ia-pa, katia.
FTV E—pugan-a, pala, kata, katia.
‘TEN—kata-kata.

The PERSONAL PRONOUNS recorded by H.
Ling Roth (p. 184) may also be simplified.

Mina, I, me, mine, has been accounted for.

Ni-na, na-ra (nard is evidently a misprint for nara),
neka, mean the “ non ego,” “ that thing,” “ thou, he, she,
ik, you, theye:

Warrandur is given for “we;”’ but it is doubtful
whether the Aborigines could grasp a collective notion;
e.g., they had no plural, and no word for forest, tribe,
family. H. Ling Roth quotes from La Billardiére and
Péron—tagari-lia, my family; but their informants had
spoken of squalling babies; tagara means “to weep,”
and tagara-na, weepers.

A more plausible explanation is that warrander (as
Norman wrote it) is a form of warrane, which means
anything curved; and its application to “ we” was per-
haps due to the circumstance that Norman, addressing
one or more Aborigines, pointed to each in turn, be-
ginning or finishing with himself, to indicate the present
company (the we), and the latter only noticed the
circular motion of his finger, and told him this was
warrane (a circle), whereupon he put down warrane as
the equivalent of “ we.”

Thus, on considering the numerals and the personal
pronouns, we again find the lowest possible stage of
human thought, and that the four words again sufficed
to express all that was required.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 77

IV—SYNTAX.

H. Ling Roth, in his discussion of the Tasmanian
language (pp. 178 ff.), bases his remarks on the syntax
chiely on Fr. Miller's Grundriss der Sprachwissen-
schaft. As has been stated in the introduction, the pre-
sent investigation is confined to the original records;
but it may be pointed out, that from our dissection of
the words it seems that these words themselves were
phrases, and that there is no trace of systematic acci-
dence or syntax.

In my Introduction to the study of the Aboriginal
Speech of Tasmania, read on the 16th November, 1908,
before this Society, I translated a song which has fortu-
nately been preserved in three versions. For the sake
of completeness and brevity, I repeat one of the ver-
sions. ‘The literal translation was :—‘‘ Mighty, run, fire,
heel, my, speedy, foot, my, speedy, thou, come, run,
bird, thou, very, great-man, man, very, great-man, hero.”
This was rendered in plain Enelish thus :—* With might
runs the bush fire; my heel, too, is speedy, and my foot
is swift. Come thou, and run with the speed of a bird!
Thou art a real warrior, a man indeed, a warrior, a
hero!”

In the records we have some phrases translated. I
will briefly refer to them.

Wilkinson’s translation of a portion of Genesis is
very short, and mixed with English words. We take
the first four verses as specimens:—Trota, Godna po-
male heavena coantana. Lewara crackne. Godna carne,
tretetea, tretetea crackne. Godna capra tretetea lewarra.

Godna and heavena are evidently English words.
Capra is probably a misprint for lapra (see). rota is
a curious word. The mental development of the Abo-
rigines had not advanced to abstract ideas; so they
could not tell Mr. Wilkinson the word for “ beginning.”
Then he probably laid a row of stones on the ground,
pointed to the first one, and asked what that was. He
would expect the equivalent of “beginning,” and the
Aborigines told him it was trota or trowatta, a round
stone or pebble! We let it pass as meaning “ begin-
ning,” and retranslate literally thus :—‘‘ Beginning God
make heaven earth. Dark rest. God speak light, light
rest. God see light dark.”

78 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES

Milligan’s sentences (pp. xli.-xlii.) give us little
further light; their general characteristics are the same
as we have already discussed, with the possible excep-
tion of ta being used as a postposition, as in mito (to
me), neeto (to thee), nangato (to the father); its literal
meaning is ‘‘ stop there.” It is even possible that this
shows that postpositions were earlier than prepositions ;
but the basis of such a contention is as yet very frail.

Indeed, in Milligan’s sentences we meet with indubit-
able datives without ta, e.g., Teeanymiape tuggane,
Meeongyneeome—Give me some bread to eat, I am
hungry. We dissect the phrase thus:—tiana, heap,
give; mia, me; pe, do; tugana, eat; mie, not; nagana,
Gzles mane, mae.

In a previous sentence, Milligan had Loina tyenna-
beah mito—Give me a stone. We dissect—lena, stone;
tiana, give; pe, do; mi, me; to, stop.

Fenton, in his History of Tasmania, has a very in-
teresting extract from a sermon delivered by G. A.
Robinson to the Aborigines, with an interlineated trans-
lation. This document must have escaped H. Ling
Roth’s notice. Robinson’s intimate acquaintance with
the Aborigines makes this record very valuable.

Matty nyrae Parlerdee. Matty nyrae Parlerdee.

One good God. One good God.
Parleeva nyrae, parleeva loggernu, taggerar
native good, native dead, go
lowway waeranggelly. Parlerdee lowway
up sky. God up.
Nyrat raegee merrdy, nueberrae Parlerdee
‘Good white-man sick, jooks God
waeranggelly, Kannernu Parlerdee. Nyrae
sky speaks (prays) God. Good.

Parlerdee neuberrac nyrae raegee timene
God sees good white-man no
-merrydy. No-ailly parleeva loggernu, tageera
sick. Bad _ native dead. goes
toogunner, raegorroper, uenee maggerer
down evil-spirit fire stops.
Parleeva tyrer, tyrer, tyrer. Nyra parleeva
Native, wcrys (Gry, cry. Goods maine

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. 79

maggerer Parlerdee waeranggelly, timene

stops God sky, no
merrydy, timene taggathe.
sick no hungering.

The spelling is peculiar, but the words can easily be
identified. The phraseology is that of a man who had
learnt to adapt his thoughts to those of his hearers. The
translation is so far inaccurate as it implies accidence
in the Tasmanian words, e.g., in speaks, sees. We note
that his word for God is Pallerdee, that is palla ritia,
powerful white-man! The first word (matty, one),
is not in H. Ling Roth’s list; it is evidently the same
as matta—round like a ball, a pebble. If Robinson tried
to get the native word for “one,” he would probably
take up a pebble to illustrate his meaning, and duly re-
ceive the information that it was matta, a pebble, which
he then would remember as the numeral “one,” not
realising that the Aborigines had no proper numerals
at all.

In Appendix D, H. Ling Roth gives some “ Phrases
and Songs after Braim.”’ There is an English version
for the phrases, but it is not accurate; there is none for
the songs. I will take phrase 5 as a specimen. Adopting
the uniform spelling and interlineating my own version,
based on H- Ling Roth’s lists, we get:—

Malangtena mena take mulaga. Puti nara
enildtstops men co: hunt Not there

pamere lugana lika lugana krakane
one kangaroo like kangaroo exist

kate kate, ludawine pallawana nara
many, White-man warrior there

mokera nara mena lugana. Ritia teratittia
dog there me -kangaroo. Man _ white

tape tialena nara lowe, relbia mena
go come there down violentact me

malitiena mabile. Warrawe poietanate.
white many. Spirit distracted.

H. Ling Roth quotes as the English version :—When
I returned to my country, I went hunting, but did not
kill one head of game. The white men make their dogs
wander and kill all the game, and they only want the
skins.

80 THE SPEECH OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES.

A free but essentially more accurate version would
be:—When I go hunting in my native place, I find not
one kangaroo where there were wont to be many. The
white warrior is there; his dogs are where my kangaroos.
were. The white man goes and comes there and lies
down to sleep. The white man has done many acts of
violence to me; my heart is broken.

In Braim’s songs, a characteristic phenomenon is the
presence of a multiplicity of hyphens. These indicate
the rhythmical tune and drum-beat to which the words
were sung, as we have observed in Mrs. Fanny Smith’s
song. Two songs will suffice for the present, to which
I will add my version. The first is :—

A re-na-too
Ket-a-ta-e-vepa
Mel-re-pa-too
A. re-na-too.
In our spelling, we get
A rena to
Keta taipewa
Mebrepa to (Mel is an error)
A rena to.

This means: O, run hither (to me) Little one, do
come! Ely to me! ©; run to me!

The second is:— |
Ne-par-me-ry-wa
Ne-cat-a-ba-wa
Ne-par-me-ry-wa
Ne-cat-a-ba-wa.

This is characteristic of the child-like mind of the
Aborigines. The words are merely :—Ne pamerewa, ne
katapawe, twice over, and their meaning is:—‘ Here is
one, look! here are two!”

CONCLUSION.

It would be easy to add further examples in illustra-
tion of my theory, for the material available is surpris-
ingly ample; and my notes are copious; but it does not
seem necessary to do so.

BY HERMANN B. RITZ, M.A. Sie

Throughout this demonstration, the arguments have
been based on general principles which apply to all lan-
guages. It would have been feasible and interesting to.
trace analogies between the Tasmanian speech and
other languages, but it was necessary to confine our
attention within narrower limits.

A reader acquainted with the Greek dialects will no
doubt recall many instances of interchange of conso-
nant, of infixes, and of instability of “rowwells : and similar
phenomena can be discerned in other languages. Indeed,
some of the roots seem to be of almost universal
occurrence.

What I have endeavoured to do is to find the prin-
ciples by which the speech of the primitive race of the
Tasmanians was governed. It seems that the languages
of the Australian continent are far more developed;
however, this is a subject for further research.

[t is curious to note the absence of spirant and
sibilant sounds from the Tasmanian speech, and also
from that of the Maori of New Zealand. The latter
language is of very elaborate structure, and has been
said to be akin to the Japanese. I do not possess suffi-
cient information to be able to discuss this point, but
it would certainly be interesting to discover, in case of
such affinity being proved, how the Maori came to be
without spirants or sibilants in their speech, while the
Japanese still have at least some of them.

The study of the Tasmanian language is Apel
begun; but, if that language really represents the very
beginning of human speech, its investigation cannot fail
to excite great interest among the scholars of the world.

It seems at least probable that, as the individual and
social life of the Tasmanian Aborigines was demon-
strably at the lowest stage of human activity, their lan-
guage, too, would be almost primitive and but one step
removed from the inarticulate cry of an infant. This
consideration has incited me to endeavour to recon-
struct the ancient speech of Tasmania.

NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF AHOSssie
TREE EMBEDDED IN DRIED VON i aus
NORTH-WEST COAST OF TASMANIA.

By T. SrepuHens, M.A., F.G.S.

(Read 12th July, 1909.)

Some forty years ago I brought under the notice
of this society the Tertiary marine formation near the
mouth of the River Inglis, and the underlying stretch
of moraine matter, with large erratics, which extends
eastward for a distance of about five miles. As a result
of a recent visit to this part of the coast I have to report
the occurrence, off Woody Hill, near low-water mark,
of a relic of the ancient forests of Tasmania preserved
under somewhat peculiar conditions.

The eastern boundary of the above-mentioned
glacial drift, so far as is yet ascertainable, is nearly
opposite the residence of Mr. C. J. Mackenzie. Hlere
the ancient slates and schists come prominently into
view at low tide, and about half a mile eastward they
rise in a low bluff and pass under the basalt of Woody
Hill to the south. To the east of this bluff in the hol-
lows between the ridges of the ancient rocks, which are
highly inclined and have a northerly strike, are masses
of consolidated drift of a totally different character, the
rolled pebbles in which are only such as might be de-
rived from the indurated sandstones, slates, and schists
that are the bed-rocks of the whole coast, and there-
fore they are probably of local origin. This drift has been
extensively denuded by the force of the seas breaking
upon the shore during the gradual elevation of the
coast line in comparatively recent times, but probably
extends southward under the low sand dunes and allu-
vium which lie to the east of Woody Hill. Whether it
is more recent than or anterior to the basalt of Woody
Hill, which is of late Tertiary age, is at present uncer-
tain.

BY T. STEPHENS, M.A., F.G.S. 83

Partly embedded in this drift, which at one time
must have deeply covered them, are the fragmentary
remains of a large fossil tree with an estimated length
of not less than sixty feet, the bulk of which has been
removed by denudation. The external appearance
somewhat resembles that of the fossil wood often found
in the upper members of our Permo-Carboniferous
series, but in this case the woody structure has not been
silicified, and the attempts which I have had made to
polish sections for closer examination have not been
successful. There is much variety in the outer portions
of exposed fragments of the tree. Iron sulphides re-
placing the organic tissues and becoming subsequently
oxidised seem to have been the petrifying agents, and
there are traces here and there of white iron pyrites
(marcasite), or arsenical pyrites (mispickel) still unal-
tered. The latter is very abundant in the coal measures
of the Mersey district. Some portions have all the ap-
pearance of siderite. The interior of the tree seems to
have been little affected by the infiltration of iron in
any form, and much of it is practically identical with
ordinary lignite. Judging from the arrangement of the
stumps of branches, the form of the tree must have re-
sembled that of a pine, and faint indications of mark-
ings like the “pits” which are the distinguishing
feature of coniferous wood may be seen here and there,
but no definite conclusion can be come to under this
head until after careful microscopical examination. All
that can be said now is that the tree is probably a pine
belonging to the Tertiary period, and that it came down
some ancient river from the country now drained by
the River Cam to its present position, where it ulti-
mately with the gradual subsidence of the land became
deeply embedded in the drift.

Apart from the question of the history of this fossil
tree, I take the opportunity to mention that, not far
away, there is a group of large boulders resting on the
upturned edges of the ancient rocks which have all the
appearance of ice-borne erratics. They are more than
half-a-mile distant from what I have described as the
eastern boundary of the glacial drift, and their presence
here calls for future investigation. Forty years ago
there were numbers of massive boulders of granite, and
of altered sandstones and limestones with fossils of

84 NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A FOSSIL TREE.

silurian type, partly embedded in the till between
Woody Hill and Table Cape. At the present time I can
find only two of them remaining, the rest, as | am in-
formed, having been broken up for use as road metal!

As a postscript to this paper I have to report the
receipt from Mr. Twelvetrees, Government Geologist,
to whom I had sent specimens of the fossil tree, of a
letter in which he says that “the wood seems to be
Tertiary. It is filled with marcasite, which has decom-
posed largely to iron oxide, and it is now highly ferru-
ginous.” Mr. Twelvetrees also encloses a note from
Mr. H. H. Scott, of the Victoria Museum, Launceston,
who says of one of the specimens that “it proved, upon
microscopical examination, to be a fairly fine-grained
pine. Much of the structure was obscured, but the pre-
sence of pyrites here and there gilded some of the tis-
sues and left the details visible.” Mr. Scott also sug-
gests that from the arrangement of the “ bordered pits ”
the tree appears to have belonged to the larger division
of the pines, and not the more ancient Araucarian sec-
tion.”

PRELIMINARY NOTE, ON THEBROCKS. USED
IN THE MANUFACTURE OF THE TRON-
JANE TANS.

BuapeRiInZ ye NOETLING VIDAL ie DED emE mcs

(Read 12th July, 1909.)

The observations here recorded are based on the
examination of more than 5,000 specimens, all collected
by myself chiefly in the southern and central parts of
Tasmania. The results derived from the study of such
a large number may be taken as fairly accurate, yet I
must consider them as preliminary only, because they
are solely dependent on macroscopical observations,
while the very important microscopical examination is
still outstanding. | am aware that this is a serious draw-
back, but the results obtained without the aid of the
microscope are full of interest, and they will be a great
help to those who may eventually take up the micro-
scopical part.

Brough Smith (1) was probably the first who recog-
nised the nature of the rocks used by the Aborigines for
their implements, but it was left to Mr. Johnstone to
ascertain the fact that “the cherty rock from which the
natives of Tasmania for the most part manufactured
their flints was undoubtedly derived from upper palaeo-
zoic mudstones, which are frequently metamorphosed
into a cherty substance by contact with the later erup-
tive greenstones”’ (2). Localities where this particular
kind of rock occurs are not uncommon, and most of
them, if not all, have been habitually visited by the
Aborigines in order to obtain suitable pieces of rock.

(1) The Aborigines of Victoria, London, 1878, Vol. IL.,
Appendix, pages 4oo and 4or.
(2) Geology of Tasmania, Hobart, 1888, page 334.

86 ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

In a paper previously read before this Society (1) I have
demonstrated that another, probably still more impor-
tant source where suitable substances were obtained
from are the gravel deposits of glacial and recent
age. It is needless to say that the pebbles contained in
these gravels are in a secondary position, and they must
have been derived from outcrops similar to those which
were used as quarries.

If the metamorphic theory is correct, it stands to
reason that there must be a considerable number of
varieties of cherty rocks. A metamorphosed sandstone
must be considerably different from a rock whose origin
is a shale. But not only are the primary rocks widely
different in chemical composition, but each kind,
whether sandstone, shale, or anything else, varies con-
siderably. The cement which binds together the grains
of quartz in the sandstone may be calcareous or sili-
cious, and, above all, the percentage of iron varies con-
siderably in each class of rock. It is therefore a priori
very probable that a large number of varieties as to
colour and other physical qualities must be the result
of metamorphism, and I wish to deal in this paper with
the main types that can be distinguished.

Whenever a collection of native stone implements is
made in the island, and such collection be sorted after-
wards, it will be found that two large groups can be
distinguished at once, viz—

1. Volcanic rocks,

2. Metamorphosed sedimentary rock of a highly
siliceous nature.

Though I propose to deal here only with the siliceous
rocks, it will be advisable to say also a few words about
the volcanic rocks. One fact becomes conspicuous at
once—not a single chipped implement has been found
that is manufactured from a volcanic rock. All the
chipped implements, the tronattas s.s.; are invariably
manufactured from the siliceous rocks.

Not in a single instance has this rule been broken,
and the reason for this is, as we will see later on, quite

(1) Notes on a Chipped Boulder found near Kempton,
“ Pap. and Proceed. Roy. Soe., 1908.”

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 87

obvious. The implements made of volcanic rocks,
mostly if not exclusively of Diabas, consist of rounded
natural pebbles, which were partly used as hammers,
partly turned into sacred stones, and natural pieces of
columnar Diabas. most probably used as choppers, but
they were never subjected to the elaborate flaking of
the cherty rocks.

The tronattas were exclusively manufactured from
cherty rocks, and even the untrained collector will
notice a large variety of colour. There are specimens
of a deep jet-black, and others of a dazzling white; there
are rocks of a blood-red or a bright yellow colour; there
are others of a grey tinge, and those of a more indif-
ferent colour are too numerous to mention. In fact it
seems that all the colours of the spectrum are repre-
sented except that which is so common in another
island of the Pacific, the green of the New Zealand
stone implements.

On closer examination it will be noticed that besides
the colour there are other differences in the appearance,
and after a short time the observer will be able to dis-
tinguish at least four different main types of the siliceous
rocks. These are :—

1. Chert, or preferably called Hornstone (1).

iN)

. Porcellanite.
mo heceia:

- Ww

. Other siliceous rocks not included under the
above headings, such as Chalcedony, Wocd-
Opal, Fossil Wood, Quartz.

I. CHERT OR HORNSTONE.—This is generally
a finely-grained rock, showing a dull lustre, but a fine
conchoidal fracture. Its colour varies from a light grey
to almost jet black. Dark grey and bluish tinges are
the most frequent; light grey is somewhat rarer; and a
dark reddish-brown colour is the rarest of all. On the
whole the colour of the hornstones is somewhat dull,
and the bright tinges exhibited by the next group have
so far not been observed among the hornstones. Fre-

(1) Dana, System of Mineralogy.

88 ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

quently the colour is streaky, darker and lighter coloured
bands regularly alternating, particularly in the grey
varieties.

Tronattas made of hornstone are unquestionably the
most common. As stated in a previous paper, horn-
stone was obtained from Clarke’s quarry (Mount Com-
munication), Johnstone’s quarry (Coal Hill, Melton-
Mowbray), Hutchison’s quarry (Front shelves run,
Beaufront, Syndal), Nichols’ quarry (Melton-Mowbray),
and probably also from Bisdee’s quarry (Great Lake)
and Walker’s quarry (River Plenty). At most of these
quarries a dark blue hornstone was obtained, only at
Nichols’ quarry and the eastern part of Hutchison’s
quarry a grey hornstone occurs. This seems to indicate
that the blue hornstone is of more frequent occurrence
than the grey one, a fact which is borne out by the
number of implements manufactured from either rock.

The hornstone has a peculiar chemical feature not
observed in the other kinds of rocks used for imple-
ments; when exposed to the action of the atmosphere
it becomes coated with a peculiar earthy-looking crust
of whitish or more frequently yellow or rusty-brown
colour. This “patina” so compltely covers the rock
that it is frequently impossible 19 ascertain its true
colour without breaking the specimen, or at least strik-
ing off a small particle. There can be not the slightest
doubt that the patina is the result of a superficial
chemical decomposition, the more soluble elements
were removed, while the less soluble, in particular iron
and alumina, were left behind. But not only do the stone
implements show this crust, in a still higher degree is it
exhibited by the rock as found in the quarries in situ,
where it often attains as much as three-quarters of an
inch in thickness.

The tronattas are usually covered with a thin patina
only, which in no way obliterates the sharp edges pro-
duced by chipping. There are, however, other speci-
mens in which the patina has reached such a thickness
that the original chipping begins to disappear. There
can be no doubt that the thickness of the patina is a fune-
tion of time, and the thicker it is the older is the imple-
ment. Unfortunately no data are available_to estimate
the number of years it takes to form a patina of a certain

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 89

thickness. The process must, however, be a very slow
one. At Maryvale I found some specimens which were
unquestionably re-chipped. Though this must have been
done at the very least 75 years ago, the later fractures
did not show even a trace of patina, but exhibited the
deep jet-black of the hornstone, strangely contrasting
with the whitish patina which covered the whole sur-
face. This being so, I doubt whether we will ever be
able to ascertain this factor, because it is unquestion-
able that centuries must lapse before any patina of any
‘appreciable thickness is formed. ‘There is, however, no
doubt that if by the combined work of generations this
factor could be ascertained, one of the most valuable
data for the estimation of the length of the past would
be obtained. |

When exposed to the action of blown sand, the
hornstone takes a fine polish, exhibiting a peculiar shiny
lustre, quite different from the original dull one. Blown
sand, however, apparently prevents the formation of a
patina.

The heat of fire affects the hornstone in a peculiar
way; the surface becomes covered with a number of fine
cracks, generally running in parallel lines, and connected
by short cross cracks. It appears that these cracks are
only superficial, and never penetrate deeply into the
stone. If such a cracked hornstone is exposed to the
air parts of its surface commence to break off, leaving
a rough jagged surface, which greatly differs in appear-
-ance from the even, smooth surface produced by flaking.
There is no doubt that in this way the finest tronatta
can be destroyed beyond recognition.

The natural crust which is still preserved in a
number of specimens is always more intensely affected
by the heat than the original stone. It breaks into a
number of irregular polygonal pieces, strangely re-
sembling a tesselated pavement in miniature.

Hornstone flakes exceedingly well, and with a little
practice large flakes, showing a fine, flat face and a sharp’
cutting edge can be struck off a larger block. There
can be no doubt, however, that in certain instances the
blow must have been carried out with tremendous force.
The largest specimen I have so far found measures 7.4

go ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

inch in length, having a weight of 3%lb. It is safe to.
assume that this specimen was struck off a block of
much larger size, and, what is still more remarkable,
the plane face (pollical face), which has a superficial
area of about 17 square inches, cuts the lines of strati-
fication at a right angle. If the cleaving had been done
along the line of bedding it might perhaps be easier to.
understand how such a large plane could be the result
of a single blow; but as it cuts it at a right angle, the
blow which struck this specimen off must have been
administered with tremendous force. It is probably the
fine flaking qualities that made the hornstone the
favourite material used for the tronatta, and there can
also be no doubt that the valued “mora trona,” the
black flint of the vocabularies, specially refers to horn-
stone.

While the true cretaceous flint of Europe is a sedi-
mentary siliceous rock, the hornstone of Tasmania is of
different origin. Primarily it is a sedimentary rock,but
this sedimentary rock has subsequently been altered by
the eruption of volcanic rocks such as diabas or basalt.

According to the nature of the original rock, a large
number of varieties were produced, but foremost of all
are dark blue and grey varieties, showing an extremely
fine banded texture. For the present I am unable to
say anything about the original rock, because none of
the quarries shows the gradual passage from the unal-—
tered to the highly metamorphosed rock; but there is
every probability that the original rock was a finely-
grained, thinly-bedded shale, such as occur in the coal
measures of Permian age.

I have taken the specific gravity of 19 specimens of
hornstone collected at different localities, which are
given in the subjoined table :—

1. Grey Hornstone, from Mona_,Vale .. 2.500:
2. Blue Hornstone, from Mona Vale .. .. .. 2.506
3. Blue Hornstone, Syndal Quarry 2.610:
4. Reddish Brown Hornstone, Mona Vale . 2.616
5. Blue Hornstone, Syndal/@uatrry 95...) 208m
6. Blue Hornstone, Mona Vale ...... .. .. 2644
7. Dark Grey Hornstone, Mona Vale .. .. .. 2.645,
8. Dark Blue Hornstone, Kempton ........ 2.666
o: Blue Hornstone,’ Kempton). ees ee ee Oe

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A.; PH.D., EDC. opi

Om Gey selomistone MionaaValeny- ne eenieyio. 208)
11. Dark Blue Hornstone, Mona Vale .. .. . 2.701
12. Grey Streaky Hornstone, Melton Mowbray PaO
13. Blue Hornstone, Johnstone’s Quarry, Mel-

tone Viowirayees au a: 2.703
14. Grey Streaky Hornstone, Melton Mowbray 2.735.
15. Blue Hornstone, Johnstone's baa Mel-

ton Mowbray .. .. DTG PG Ge aU U2 AG
16. Blue Hornstone, Wonca alc ae 2.750
19/7, leliole Hornstone, Johnstone’s ee Mel-

ton Mowbray .. .. 2.701
18. Grey Hornstone, Nichols’. Quarry, "Melton

Mowbray .. .. . LT BORO TSO
19. Light Grey Hornstone, Vieonayvale 09s 9 2.847

The above figures prove at once that the Tasmanian
Hornstone is rather a heavy rock; the average specific
gravity being 2.687, it will be seen that only two speci-
mens are under 2.600, while all the others are well above
this. The figures for specimens obtained directly from
the quarry are rather interesting. They are for:—

Hutchison’s Quarry, Syndal—a very dark blue horn-
Stones
(3) AOI,
(§) 2GaK

Johnstone’s Quarry, Coal Hill, Melton Mowbray—
a dark blue hornstone—

(aS) Ayes
(15) 2.746.
(LF) 2a7/ Ohi
Nichols’ Quarry, Melton Mowbray—a grey horn-
stone—

(18) 2.780.

These figures seem to indicate that the hornstone
from different places varies somewhat, and that, strange
_ to say, the light grey variety is the heaviest of all, while
the dark blue stone found in Hutchison’s quarry is, con-
trary to expectations, the lightest of all. On the other
hand, the figures for one and the same locality vary,
and I am afraid that, however tempting it may be to
ascertain the locality from which a certain implement
came by means of the spec. gravity, it is impossible to
do this for the present.

Q2 ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

2. PORCELLANITE.—This is a much coarser
grained rock than hornstone, always showing a shiny
waxy lustre, thereby strongly differing from the dull
hornstone. Its colour varies from a pure white te
almost black; most frequent are red, yellow, and brown
tinges; grey is not infrequent, the dark tones being the
rarest; sometimes several colours, for instance red and
yellow, alternate, and the rock becomes streaky.

Tronattas made of porcellanite are much less fre-
quent, and so far | know of only two localities where
porcellanite is found in situ. One is near Pontville sta-
tion, and this was used as a quarry (Weston’s Quarry);
the other is an outcrop near Maryvale, which, however,
was probably never worked. In Weston’s Quarry the
colour of the rock varies from white through grey and
mea

Porcellanite never shows a patina, and this proves
that its chemical composition must considerably differ
from that of hornstone.

The fracture is conchoidal, and some of the porcel-
lanites flake as well as hornstone; yet it was a much less
favourite rock than the latter. I believe the reason for
this is the coarser grain, because tronattas made of por-
cellanite are generally never so elaborately worked as
those of hornstone.

Blown sand does not affect the porcellanite as much
as the hornstone. Of course it also gets the peculiar
coating due to this cause, but inasmuch as it has a shiny
lustre of its own, the blown sand does not affect it much.

The heat of fire acts quite differently on porcellanite.
Instead of a multitude of superficial cracks there are
only a few, which divide the rock in small polygonal
pieces of rather peculiar appearance, such as are found
in Weston’s Quarry, near Pontville station. If exposed
to a very strong heat porcellanite apparently loses its
waxy lustre, and becomes dull; at the same time the
surface gets covered with a’glassy coat.

Porcellanite is, like hornstone, a metamorphosed
sedimentary rock, and at Pontville it can be distinctly
seen that it is an altered sandstone. Opposite the rail-
way station the western hills are formed of sandstone,

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 93°

and immediately on the other side of the line the porcel-
lanite occurs, which in its turn is followed by Diabas.
Though the line of contact is not clearly seen, there
can be no doubt as to the true relations of Diabas, por-
cellanite, and sandstone. The specific gravity of 12
specimens is as follows :—

1. White Porcellanite, Weston’s Quarry, Pont-

plete ERT oy REE ES 12 2:0OS,
2. White Porcellanite, Weston’s Qua arry, Pont-

walle! Aisi) SAE ete: 346.
3. Red Porcellanite, Melton Mowbray aa EZ OZ
4. White Porcellanite, Weston’s Quarry, mente

ville ay BSA tah re 2.382
5. Grey Porcellanite, M ‘elton Mowbray. . 2.500
6. Grey Porcellanite, Mona Vale.......... 2.506
7. White Porcellanite, Melton Mowbray 2i22
8. Red Porcellanite, Weston’s Quarry, Pont-

ville ae Me eRe ge hey veo aS
9. Brown Porcellanite, (Old ecient ae 2.500
o. Pink Porcellanite, Kempton et ats pe L Gy o>
Ii. Reddish Grey. Porcellanite, Kempton te DIOS A

12. Dark, nearly black Porcellanite, Mona Vale 2.700

The average specific gravity is 2.498, and the above
figures seem to indicate that as a rule the coloured
varieties are heavier than the white ones, and that the
darker tinges are again heavier than the lighter ones.
If these few figures permit of such a conclusion, it seems
that the specific gravity increases with the following
scale of colour :—

Lightest Heaviest
Wingate <). Grey =. Redo Browar. Black

As the colour is unquestionably dependent on a certain
percentage ‘of iron; this peculiarity explains itsell.

BRECCIA.—Under. this heading I include all
oe siliceous rocks used in the manufacture of tro-
nattas in which angular fragments are embedded in a
finely-grained. matrix of different colour. “The colour
of both fragments and the matrix varies a’ good ‘deal,
but most common is a yellow or brown matrix contain-
ing hghter-coloured fragments. 5

94 ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

The fracture is splintery, and, though a little con-
choidal, the breccia does not flake as well as hornstone
or porcellanite.

Like porcellanite, the breccia never develops a
patina, but when exposed to blown sand it takes a fine,
smooth polish. Fire acts differently on preccia—in fact
the result is more like that of chalcedony than of either
hornstone or porcellanite. The whole specimen is
covered by numerous cracks, intersecting each other in
all directions, but apparently not penetrating deeply into
the interior.

Breccia is much less frequently used for implements.
then either of the foregoing rocks, and I never found a
specimen showing careful chipping on the indical face.
All tronattas consisting of breccia are of the crudest
types. I think that this is due to the inferior quality of
the fracture, but in particular to its splintery nature.

Breccia does not seem to occur very frequently.
‘Only one actual outcrop is known to me, at Droughty
Point. The rock occurs here in large, loose blocks and
boulders, lying near the shore on the top of a volcanic
rock. There is no doubt that this occurrence has been
made use of by the Aborigines, though it cannot be
termed a regular quarry, but the ground close to these
boulders contains a large number of implements which
have been manufactured from this breccia. Mr. Stephens
kindly told me that there is another occurrence near
Ulverstone, and it appears that the tronattas found near
Devonport were derived from that source.

Geologically speaking the breccia is perhaps the
most interesting of all. There can be no doubt that the
Droughty Point breccia must be considered as a de-
posit of hot springs. In fact it is a silica sinter, as is
conclusively proved by the fine banded texture of the
matrix.

On the other hand, the beautiful black and white
breccia from Mona Vale appears to be a true breccia
porphyry. Here the molten magma penetrated through
a conglomerate, breaking it up into angular fragments,
which floated in the magma, and became thereby meta-
morphosed. It further appears that a certain group of
rocks found near Margate, which I provisionally classify

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 95

with the breccia, is a really micro-crystalline porphyry
of yellow colour. It is impossible to decide these ques-
tions without a microscopical examination, but should
this be carried out the most interesting results are cer-
tain to be obtained.

I determined the specific gravity of 11 different
pieces, which gave the following figures :—

tg Ikea ISceCee), ID ico wrelmiyy; Ieowalt G6 66 c6 se oo AES
2, Browin Breeeciy, IDiroiieinsy IRoWE obs co. a5 Zager
a, Grey Breccia, IDironielaay Je Obime eo odlcd So. oc) || ZaSOO
4, IRE Idieeocia, IDroweAlsity Jeet Go ko as sc ob Adoito
&, IBinowmnal IBieceCi, IDycorbleluyy Item es so oe on 2iOue)
Omoroni > Kecctay DW rouclity esol). 1) y 4h ye O2"
7, INeGl IBireecia, IESE Kish ad oop ealoe oo 2OSS
SaaWViinitemand slack Breccray VionaVale eas.) 21054
Om Greve simeday) Breccia, Drouchty. Pombtgn 2055
1@, Iked recom, IDirowimlany IB@wie sons Ge wo ele ASO
ti, WBisouva bieeccia, IDirowelayy IRlobme 44 be 6c le.) Ayer

The average specific gravity is 2.636, but it does not
seem that there is a connection between colour and
specific gravity. The range is apparently a much smaller
one, as there is only 0.242 difference between the lightest
and the heaviest variety examined.

di, QUIET. SIUUIKCI OU S- INOCICS INOW) UNE
CILIUIDIEID) NUINI DI MUSla wes OW Is IebayaIDIIN (ES)
SUGar ANS) Clune DON SG. QUUAI Ze Ni OOND)
OlZAIL, BOSSE, WOOD,

This group includes rather a heterogenous mixture
of siliceous minerals, which have been provisionally
placedtosectier lt Is remarkable ito more that not a
single implement made of any of this mineral has come
under my notice which shows a good finish. All the
specimens are of the very crudest type, and generally
mere fragments only. The reason is obvious. None of
them except wood opal shows that fine conchoidal frac-
ture which is so essential for a good tronatta. Chalce-
dony in its numerous varieties has a very splintery,
rough fracture, which is still stronger in the ordinary
quartz. Wood opal has a fine conchoidal fracture, but

96 ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

it appears that it is too soft for rough use. Anyhow,
none of these minerals plaved an important role in the
economic life of the Aborigines.

The heat affects these minerals in a way quite dit
ferent from hornstone or porcellanite. In wood opal the
fire produces a few cracks, which appear to penetrate
deeply into the interior. The cracks are rather irregular,
fairly wide apart; in somewhat this comes closest in ap-
pearance to hornstone, but the cracks are more ir
regular, further distant, and deeper.

Very different is the appearance of the white, milky
chalcedony. This is intersected by a large number of
irregular cracks running in all directions, and pene-
trating eats the whole mass of the specimen: A
more brow ish rather transparent chaicedony shows the
same featues part of the surface is broken off, and
instead of the smooth surface produced by flaking, it is
rough and jagged.

These pieces of chalcedony resemble very closely to
the famous cracked flints from the Oligocene of ae
in France; in fact, the darker specimen can hardly b
distinguished from the European ones.

The examination of 11 specimens gave the following
results for specific gravity :—

1, Opaqwe Wood Ojoell, WMlervelle os ag 84055 TGA
2a Nites Challced orye 1 Witarynvellici mye rameen <n eeoReee
Bee Wihittet@halcedonyzpinasketvalllesiaiee iti clemmmeernors
4. Milky Opaque Chalcedony, Mona Vale ...- 2.436
5. Fossil Wood, Mona Vale 2.465
6. Wood Opal, Mona Vale DEES RAM MEN ie 2.8
Zu Ohalcedony, MeltonuMiow bray irmemecl a eemena es
8. Do., Melton Mowbray 5 a OPEN ie ce OM
Q. Do Melton sViowbrayy.i nae en eee)
10. Fossil Wood, Droughty Points. 0 aun) Galena
11. Milky Quartz, Money Viale) oc 0) 1s eee eta

The average specific gravity, if it be permissible to
take it of such a heterogenous group, would be 2.472

Before proceeding any further, I must explain why
I never mentioned the hardness. The old method of
determining ‘the hardness of a mineral ora rock is a’

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. 97

most crude and unsatisfactory one. If determined in
this way, all the rocks and minerals here enumerated
have exactly the same hardness, namely, that of quartz;
that is to say about seven, though this would probably
represent the maximum. ‘The hardness of the rocks
here mentioned ranges between 6 and 7, though most
will be about 6.5 to 6.75, but it would be absolutely im-
possible to distinguish the finer grades, which are cer-
tain to exist. If determination of hardness were made,
it should be carried out according to the more im-
proved methods suggested by Rossival, but this is a
very tedious operation, which requires a lot of me-
chanical appliances not at my disposal. It is therefore
unnecessary to make a special reference to the hardness,
because it, must be a matter of course that rocks con-
sisting mostly of silica must have a hardness closely
approaching to that of quartz. I fail to understand why
under these circumstances Herr Klaatsch could have
stated that the rocks used in the manufacture of tro-
nattas were rather soft. This is by no means the case
—in fact some of the grey hornstones appear to be
harder than flint, the ordinary material of the European
rocks. Herr Klaatsch’s statement is one of those super-
ficial observations by which this author has gained rather
a notoriety, and in this particular case his erroneous
opinion is either due to insufficient mineralogical know-
ledge or insufficient material, or both.

When we compare the specific gravity of the rocks
here mentioned we obtain some rather interesting re-
sults. Taken as a whole we have :—

1. Hornstone-—Range, 2.500—2.847; difference,
0.347 ; average, 2.6087.

2. Porcellanite—Range, 2.308—2.700; difference,
0.392; average, 2.408.

3. Breccia.—Range, 2.540—2.782; difference, 0.242;
average, 2.636.

4. Others—Range, 1.940—2.680; difference, 0.740;
average, 2.472.

It will be seen that the breccia shows the smallest
difference between extremes, while that of the fourth
group has, as might be expected, the largest. Horn-
stone and porcellanite show a fairly wide range, which

98 ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

seems to indicate a rather varying composition of
the original rock from which they are derived. Horn-
stone is the heaviest of all, and it is closely followed by
the breccia, while there is a considerable difference be-
tween these two and porcellanite, as will be seen from
the following figures :—

Hornstone, 2.687;
Difference, 0.051.
Breccia, 2.636;
Difference, 0.138.
Porcellanite, 2.498 ;
Difference, 0.022.
Others, 2.472.

According to these figures there is less difference
in the specific gravity of the more pure siliceous mine-
tals and the porcellanite than between the porcellanite
on the one side and the breccia and hornstone on the
other. Ifa conclusion can be drawn from this, it seems
to indicate that the porcellanites are a fairly pure sili-
ceous rocks with a comparatively small admixture of
other substances, while in the breccia, but particularly
the hornstone, the percentage of non-siliceous matter
must be fairly high.

f we compare these rocks to other substances, the

following table of specific gravity will be of interest :—

Obsidian buttons, average 2.388, maximum 2.500,
minimum 2.312.

Fragment of white glass, 2.424.
Fragment of green bottle glass, 2.674.
Flint Salzinnes (Belgium), 2.565.

Flint St. Symphorien (Belgium), 2.535.

The heavy weight of the green bottle glass is most
conspicuous, and, as we know that this is chiefly due to
-the high percentage of iron, the conclusion I have drawn
with reference to the hornstone and breccia is well sup-
ported.

Now, if we take the specific gravity of the cretaceous
flint to be 2.500—2.600, we can arrange the rocks here
described in a very illustrative table. They are :—

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC.

Sie CNC Ga AwW all Ne.

ede Loma) — = Soon El
a) is} S S S S S
Sel Set dere (Meee (Cee ee) ee
og ss irs) NG AF NO ANG
an a) ga ga gc Ea EN
ane) Qn 50 60 50° Me 50
54, (9) He ur ur H+ =)
Sem as tH re i fH fi
|
Hornstone 1g fe) fo) 2 8 I
Brescia .-. TOT O fo) 3 I O
Porcellanite 12 4 I 5 I I O
Mihersx..- Tr 2 3 3 3 O fo)
Total 53 6 4 eg) Pes) || 3000) I

If calculated in per cents, this table can be condensed
to a little one, particularly if we assume three groups of
specific gravity in comparison to flint, viz., lighter, equal,

and heavier than flint.

We have then

Srecific Gravity | Specific Gravity | Specific Gravity
lower than 2.500; 2.500 to 2.600 more than 2.600
lighter than equal to heavier than
Flint. Flint. Flint.

Hornstone... nil MONE SOWA Oh
Breccia nil BD F237 %
Porcellanite AI Hest|6) 16.6 %
Others 45-4 .% AGP Aghe) Ue
Total 18.8 % DAG 56.6 %

This table is of the greatest interest, because it
proves that the majority of the rocks used for the manu-
facture of the tronatta were considerably heavier than
flint, from which the European eolithes and archaeo-
lithes were made.

These figures will be more illustrative still if we
compare the ratio of frequency of the different kind of
rocks used in the manufacture of tronatta.
ing figures are arranged according to localities:—

The follow-

IOO ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

wo 4

| be] C) ' 2 g 5 n 4 | 0)

| 5} iS 4 ich) 6 668 3 v

he oe fe) DB 2a 2 Baa = sor

| oS ac
4. Others | 70 Fe) 5-9 5.1 Bol 2. 2.3 |, 4-9ual

The average figures, based on the examination of
such a large number as 5,000 specimens, conclusively
prove the preponderance of hornstone. We may say
almost eight out of every 10 tronattas are made of horn-
stone, and, in comparison to it, the use of the other
rocks is insignificant. Next to hornstone comes the
porcellanite, while the use of breccia and other rocks is
very limited.

The figures obtained for these seven localities are
rather interesting, inasmuch as they seem to prove that.
the selection of the rocks was influenced by local condi-
tions. In the neighbourhood of Hobart, where horn-
stone is rather rare, while porcellanites and in particular
breccia are common, the last two rocks show a much
higher percentage than at any other place. There is no
outcrop of hornstone known to me near Hobart—cer-
tainly not one that has been used by the Aborigines.
The nearest quarries—Clark’s Quarry, or Mount Com-
munication and Walker's Quarry, near Plenty, are
about 20 to 22 miles in a straight line. Johnstone’s and
Nichols’ Quarries are about 30 miles distant. Unless
we assume that the Aborigines broke the stone at these
quarries and carried it to their camping grounds, near
Geilston and Old Beach—a view which is not very prob-
able—we must suppose that they collected the rough
stone locally in gravel deposits. The proportion in.
which the different rocks occur in these deposits is there-
fore reflected in the above figures. Where quarries were
handy, at places like Mona Vale, Mount Morriston—
Trefusis, and Melton Mowbray, the hornstone was used
in preference to all other rocks. It seems, however,
remarkable that at Shene, but particularly at Maryvale,

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., PH.D., ETC. Iot

where no quarry is known to be near except the porcel-
lanite outcrop (Weston’s Quarry) near Pontville, the
percentage of hornstone reaches the highest figure, and
that, though a porcellanite quarry was handy, the per-
centage of that rock is not more than 11.8 per cent. of
the total. This seems to prove more than anything the
preference for the hornstone.

To me all this seems to show that though the horn-
stone was by far the most valued rock, and if possible
was used in preference to any other, porcellanite and
breccia were made use of only when the supply of horn-
stone was not ample.

Now, if we compare ‘how many specimens would be
lighter, equal, and heavier to flint, according to the
above figures for the frequency of occurrence we find
that

ifi ifi Specifi
Average per Gravity | Gravity | Gravity
Breeeucrs Mma hany cde (2) pec cian hh
Hornstone peel oes or v6 nil SesO) Gh) || Gouevt 9
Breccia... pele WANT OLA nil aBO) Gh away Ye
Porcellanmitenyer-| sbt.93 Call non CAN 4.07, °F uieO8)c%
Others... Soo) AO | RAO GS ste 3\s) G 16s
Motalws <i. cod| RCO G || G27 TH |. USoo. 9 | GOs8B

In comparing this table with that on page 15, it
seems at the first glance that there is a great discrepancy
between the ratio of lighter, equal, and heavier than
flint. It must be borne in mind that the 53 specimens
whose specific gravity was determined were not selected
according to the proper ratio of occurrence. : In order
to bring the two tables in harmony I ought to have
ascertained the specific gravity of 78 hornstones, 12 por-
cellanite, 5 breccia, and 5 others, or at the reduced
ratio of say 16—3—1—1, while the actual determination
was made at the ratio of

Hornstone. Porcellanite. Breccia. Others.
2 I I I

IO2 ROCKS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TRONATTAS.

In other words, if the determination of the specific
gravity had been carried out in proportion to the fre-
quency of occurrence, I ought to have determined it off
16 pieces of hornstone and 3 pieces of porcellanite for
every one piece of breccia, and others that I examined.
But instead of this I weighed only two pieces of horn-
stone (that is to say, one-eighth of the number that
should have been examined) for one piece of breccia and
others.

This explains, therefore, the difference in the figures,
and it is obvious that those of the last table represent
the actual figures. If I therefore collect 100 tronatta
there will be

Heavier than flint 76 specimens, composed of 70
hornstone, 3 breccia, 2 porcellanite, 1 other.

Equal to flint 16 specimens, composed of 8 horn-
stone, I breccia, 5 porcellanite, 1 other.

Lighter than flint 7 specimens, composed of o horn-
stone, o breccia, 5 porcellanite, 2 others.

Therefore, taking weight for weight, 100 tronatta
were considerably heavier than 100 European imple-
ments of exactly the same size.

The above investigation has conclusively proved that
there is a great variety of rocks used in the manufacture
of the tronatta. This variety of substances stands in a
sharp contrast to the monotony of the material used in
the manufacture of the European implements. For
eolithes and archaeolithes nothing else but the well-
known flint of cretaceous age was used, at least as far
as I can judge from the collections at my disposal. The
eolithes from the Mafflien, in Belgium, seem to form
the only exception, inasmuch as a dark blue hornstone,.
somewhat resembling that. from Johnstone’s or Hut-
chison’s quarry, has been used. Variety of material and
monotony of the same are the chief distinguishing
feature of an otherwise undistinguishable collection of
eolithes and archaeolithes from Tasmanian and Europe.

NOTES ON THE NAMES GIVEN TO MINERALS
AND ROCKS BY THE ABORIGINES OF TAS-
MANIA.

By Fritz Noretiine, Px.D., Etc.

(Read 9th August, 1909.)

The enquiry into the name given by the Aborigines
to their stone implements led naturally to a further en-
quiry into the names of rocks and minerals distinguished
by that race. The result is mteresting enough; in
several instances the literal meaning of the words used
would be ascertained, and the meaning of other words
which were rather a puzzle could be made out with a
tolerable amount of certainty.

Though primarily meant to be a collection of the
names of minerals and rocks, it was unavoidable to dis-
cuss other subjects which apparently had no direct con-
nection with minerals. Yet these studies throw such a
curious light on the mental condition of the Aborigines,
‘that, instead of being a mere collection of names, this
paper rather deals with a number of questions connected
with the life of this primitive race.

I need hardly to say that I am not a trained philolo-
gist, and some of my deductions may be wrong. If so,
I shali ‘be only too pleased if anyone who has got a

‘better knowledge than I will correct me. The matter is

of great importance. The more we learn, even about
the mental capacity of the Tasmanian Aborigines, the
greater will be the assistance rendered to the study of
the archaeolithic race of Europe.

It will perhaps be best to review the native words
for minerals and rocks, irrespective of their nature, in
alphabetical order, in order to establish some facts to
go on with (1).

(1) It will also be noticed that a few substances such. as
charcoal or red ochre, the first of which is certainly not, and the
second of which can hardly be called a natural produce, are
included in this list. However, both being closely connected
with some of the minerals, I thought it better not to omit them
from the list.

104 ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

1. COAL.—I can only find one word for coal, viz.,
“ Conara,”’ in Calder’s vocabulary, who quotes d’Entre-
casteaux as his authority; but it is apparently not con-
tained in any other vocabulary.

Coal was of no value to the Aborigines, and it is
more than probable that they took very little notice of
it. As, however, coal seams crop out closely to the sea
shore.at the localities visited by d’Entrecasteaux, there
is every probability that a specimen lying amongst the
rubble on the beach was found by him or his men, and
its name ascertained by questioning an Aborigine.

2. CHARCOAL.—Though not exactly a mineral, I
find it convenient to include this substance in my list.
According to Milligan the words are—

Eastern Tribes—Maweena.
Southern Tribes—Loarra.

La Billiardiere and Peron both use the word

Loira,
stating that this means charcoal reduced to powder,
with which they cover their bodies. Now, there is no
doubt that Loarra and Loira are identical, but it will be
seen that this word is very different from that one as
used by the Eastern Tribes.

Now, one of the most characteristic features of char-
coal is its blackness, and if we look up under the head-
ing “ black’’ we find—

Eastern Tribes—Mawback and Mawbanna.
Southern Tribes—Loaparte.

We also find
Dirty—mawpa and mawpack.

“Dirty”? and “black” are therefore synonymous,
exactly as “clean” and “ white.”

In the words for ‘“ black ’’ we have undoubtedly the
same words as those used for charcoal, and we may
therefore take it that there existed no proper name for
charcoal; it was simply called “ (the) black” from its

BY FRIGZ NOETLEING, PH.D. ETC. I05

foremost quality, and in its ordinary condition it was
called

Mawee-na.

Mawi-na.

Mawba-na.

Mawback.

When powdered it was probably

Loa-ra.
Loi-ra.
Loa-parte.

It is remarkable that there is so little similarity be-
tween the words for coal and charcoal, two substances
which are so very alike as far as colour is concerned.
There may be a connection between

Co(n)a-ra and
Loa-ra,
but this requires further proof.

3. CLAY AND EARTH.—Milligan gives the fol-
lowing words :—

(a) Clay.
Eastern Tribes—Pannoga-na malittye.
Southern Tribes—Pappalye mallee.
(b) Dirt (mud of whitish colour).
Eastern Tribes—Panoga-na maleetya.
Southern Tribes—Manna-na mallye.
(c) Dirt (mud dried).
Eastern Tribes—Penga-na rutta.
Southern Tribes—Manna-na rulle.
(d) Dirt.
Eastern Tribes—Penga-na.
Southern Tribes—Manna-na.
(e) Earth (mould).
Eastern Tribes—Penga-na.
Southern Tribes—Manna-na.
Two more words for earth, viz.,

Gunta (Dooe)
Natta (M‘Geary),

106 ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

are quoted by Ling Roth. In the Tasmanian English
Dictionary it will be found that “ gunta” does not mean
earth in the sense of a mineral, but rather the ground
on which men are standing. the word “nata,” or
“natie”’ is given with the same meaning, and we may
therefore omit both, not representing a mineral. From
the above list it will be seen that the primary words are

Penga-na,

Manna-na,
from which all the others are derived. They apparently
mean “surface soil” of any kind. The Aborigines did
not know the meaning of the word “ dirt;” everything
was “earth” to them, hence we find dirt and earth as
synonymous.

If we examine the derived words we have a

Panoga-na
Pen(o)ga-na
Manna-na mallye.

\ maleetya

As the second word means white or whitish, these
words mean a clay or earth of whitish colour, and a re-
ference to the vocabulary shows that the word “rulle’”
means “ rough.”

Literally, Pengana rutta or Manna-na rulle means
“rough earth,’ and as dried clayey soil is pretty
“rough,” it may also stand for dry “ mud.”

The words which stand for clay show at once that
they mean a whitish substance, and in the word
Pannoga-na we have no trouble in recognising the word
Pen-ga-na. It is more than probable that Pappa-lye is
the same word as Manna-na.

We therefore come to the conclusion that the surface

soil in general was called by the

‘Eastern ‘Tribes—Pen-ga-na,

Southern Tribes—Man-na-na.
If dried and rough it became rutta or rulle, and a special
kind of argillaceous soil or rock—a white clay—was dis-
tinguished under the names

Pan-(o)ga-na maleetye

Man-na-na mallye.

Bw IMIG INOMMNLMISG, WeDo, I70e, 107

It is very probable that the heavy loamy soil result-
ing from the weathering of volcanic rocks was the Pen-
ga-na or Man-na-na, considering its wide distribution
all over Tasmania. The whitish clay, the Pan-oga-na
maleetye and the Man-na-na mallye most probably re-
present the pipeclay so frequently found. It is there-
fore unquestionable that these words refer solely to an
argillaceous soil.

4. CRYSTAL.—In Calder’s Vocabulary two names
are given under the heading crystal, viz.,

Southern Tribes—Keeka.
Northern Tribes—Heka.

There can be no doubt that both words are identical,
but it is impossible to say what kind of crystal they refer
to. The most probable theory is that they stand for
quartz-crystal, though crystallised quartz is by no means
of frequent occurrence in Tasmania. We must, there-
fore, leave the meaning of the word an open question.

5. FREESTONE—tThis is the popular name given
to that kind of rock which is geologically known as
“sandstone.” The sandstone of Tasmania is almost ex-
clusively, if not all, of Permian age, and some of its
varieties form an excellent building stone. In fact, be-
fore the introduction of the kiln-burnt brick it was the
only building stone used in Tasmania. The houses were
either constructed of wood or the more substantial ones
of freestone. This rock played therefore an important
part in the life of the early settlers, and it is hardly to
be wondered at that they enquired for its native name.

Milhgan gives the following names :—
Eastern Tribes—Boatta or potha malleetye.
Southern Tribes—Potta mallya.
North and West Tribes—Ponin-galee.

We see at once that it is a compound word, and the
word as used by the Eastern and Southern tribes leaves
no doubt that the attribute means “ white ” or “ whitish.”
“White potta,” the freestone was called by the Abo-
rigines, and as far as colour goes this attribute is gnite
correct.

108 ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

I am afraid, however, that it will be impossible to
arrive at the meaning of potta, or po-ta. The suffix
“ta” is frequently found in other words, and probably
the correct spelling of the freestone would be

Po-ta-male and
Po-nin-galee.

Though the suffix “nin” in the word used by the
Northern and Western tribes differs from that used by
the others, there can be no doubt that po-nin-galee is
practically the same word as po-ta-malee.

6. IRON ORE.—Iron ore is fairly common in Tas-
mania. Large pieces of limonite occur at numerous
places in the weathered diabas—for instance, on the
Brighton Plains, near Shene. Layers of impure sandy
ore are pretty common in certain permian sandstones—
for instance, near Baskerville, on the Macquarie River ;
and last, but not least, the fine haematite ore on the
Penguin River, is well known. Iron ore was apparently
greatly valued by the Aborigines as the substance which
they turned into red ochre by roasting.

Milligan gives the following words :—
Eastern Tribes—Latta.
Southern Tribes—Lattawinne.

The suffix “ winne”’ occurs in numerous words, and
its meaning is not quite known yet. The real word for
iron ore is undoubtedly

La-ta,
in which we again find the same suffix
preceding po-ta.

(ay 9

ta’’ as in the

7. REID OCHRE.—As this substance has formed the
subject of a special paper, it is sufficient to mention its
name only.

Milligan gives the following :—
Eastern Tribes—Ballawinne.
Southern Tribes—Balla-winne.
We know that the suffix “winne”’ is unimportant,
and that the proper name is therefore
Ba-la.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, PH.D., ETC. 10Q,

I only wish to draw once more the attention to the
remarkable likeness of the Tasmanian word for blood,
viz.,

Ba-loo-ina,
and the word for red ochre. If we separate. balawine
in the following way—ba-law-ine—the similarity is so.
striking that there is every probability that the Tas-
manian name for red ochre means nothing else but
“blood.” La Billiardiere gives another name for ochre,,
viz., ma-la-ue (1), which in the Tasmanian-English
vocabulary is spelt

Ma-la-ne,
and translated as “ yellow ochre” according to Peron.
Disregarding the suffix, we would have two kinds of
ochre, viz.,

Red ba-la-(wine),

Yellow ma-la-(ne).

I may remark here that in the dialect of the Southern
tribes the name for canoe was

Ma-la-na (mallanna).

The similarity between this word and that for yellow
ochre is very remarkable. It is difficult, if not impos-
sible, to say whether there is not some mistake at the
bottom of this. I cannot find any reference to the use
of “ yellow ochre” by the Aborigines, and this being so,
it is hardly probable that they would have distinguished
a substance which not only is of rare occurrence in Tas-
mania, but was also of no use to them, under a special
name.

8. HORNSTONE OR CHERT.—As this substance
formed the subject of a special paper, in which all the
different rocks coming under this heading have been
discussed, I need not go into further detail. The
Aboriginal names were—

Eastern Tribes—Trona,
and a special kind of this trona, probably the dark blue
or grey variety, was called
Mora trona.

(1) Considering the French pronunciation of the letter
“1,” the last syllable comes nearest to the English wee-e; ma-
la-ue, might perhaps be transcribed as ma-la-wi(n)e.

Tio ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

The meaning of the word tro-na is not known, ex-
cept that it represents a siliceous rock, which the
modern scientist calls hornstone or chert, and that it
also included such substances as porcellanite, breccia,
and a number of quartz minerals such as chalcedony,
‘wood opal, etc.

QO. PEBBLE (Rolled Quartz)—Under this heading
Milligan gives two words, viz.,

Eastern Tribes—Kugha-weenya
Southern Tribes—Tramutta.

At the first glance we perceive that under this head-
‘ing two most heterogeneous objects are included. The
‘second word is no other than the general name for stone
‘implement, viz., trowatta. No doubt a pebble of rolled
‘quartz can be, and may often have been, turned into a
trawatta; but there can be also not the slightest doubt
that this name was not applied to designate the sub-
‘stance. We can therefore disregard this word.

The remaining kugha-weenya presents such a simi-
‘larity with the word for “topaz” that it will be better
‘to discuss it there.

to. SALT.—It seems one of the most striking
features of the Tasmanian vocabulary that there exists
no special word for one of the most necessary sub-
stances of human life, namely, salt. Human beings can-
not exist without salt—a fact too well known to be
further enlarged upon. How is it, then, that the Tas-
manian Aborigines could do without it, though as a sub-
stance it must have been well known to them. For in-
stance, the salt pans near Mona Vale are after a dry
season completely covered with a glittering white crust
-of dry salt, and as this part was apparently one of their
favourite camping grounds, they could not help noticing
‘this when water became scarce. There is also no doubt
that they noticed the salt on the rocks left by the
evaporation of sea water.

I think the explanation of this apparently lack of
-desire for one of the most important substances is very
simple. During winter time the food of the Aborigines
-consisted mostly of shell fish, which naturally contained

BY FRITZ NOETLING, PH.D., ETC. Iil

sufficient salt to satisfy all cravings of the body for this
substance (1). Thus, taking the salt required for the
process of life already included in their daily food, there
was no reason for them to specially collect it (2).

Milligan mentions the following words for salt :—

(a) Salt on the rocks by the sea side—
Lienowittye.

(b) Ditto—
Liopackanapoona.

If we begin with the first word,
Lieno-wittye,
we see that it is composed of the word for water lia or
liena(o) and the suffix wittye. It is very probable that
“wittye”’ is the same as “winne;’ the word would
therefore read
Lieno-winne,

and would perhaps mean a “a substance that comes
from water,” salt being the residue after the evaporation
of sea water. I am not quite so certain about the
second word, except that it also contains the lia(o)
water, and therefore indicates that the word has some
connection with water.

The most interesting of all is, however, the third, the

word for salt water—
Lia-noattye.

According to F. Mueller, the negative is expressed
in the Tasmanian language by the word “noia;” if
affixed to a word it would convey just the opposite
meaning. Now, we find that water pure and simple is

Lia-winne or liena, the last word apparently being
contracted from
Lia-eleebana.

(1) I have not tested them, but I am told that limpets
(Patella), and even mutton fish (Halioties), are so salty that
if eaten they will, even if well cooked, produce an intense feel-
ing of thirst.

(2) The question may well be asked, How did the archaeo-
lithic man of Europe obtain the necessary salt? Is it possible
that he, like the Tasmanians, frequented the sea shores?

II2 ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

The attribute “eleebana” apparently expresses a
particular emphasis of the good qualities of something.
Lia was water; lia-eleebana particularly good water.
Now, I do not think that the sense of taste of the
Aborigines was so highly cultivated as to distinguish
different qualities of water. Good water was any water
that was fit for drinking, though, in the opinion of
modern man, this same water may be disgustingly dirty.
Lia-noia or lia-noattye was bad water—that is to say,
unfit for drinking purposes, however clear such water
may have been. Now we can fully understand the origin
of the third word, which stands for “ salt water.” Arriv-
ing at a waterhole or passing a creek a European would
probably ask his native guide, Is this fresh water? The
Aborigine would reply, Lia-noattye, meaning thereby,
“ This is water not fit for drinking.’ The European
would promptly taste it, and, finding its taste saline,
would jump at the conclusion that lia-noia or noattye
means salt water, while it really had no association with
the word “salt” at all.

T1—SAND.—Sand forms one of the most con-
spicuous features of the Tasmanian landscape, particu-
larly along the sea shore. Sandy soil was the favourite
camping ground of the Aborigines, but only two words
are contained in the vocabularies to denote sand, and
even one of these seems doubtful.

Milligan gives the following words :—

Eastern Tribes—Mungara mena.
Southern Tribes— Neguna.

The second word is unquestionably incomplete, as
the main part, the root, is evidently missing. It is, how-
ever, the first one which is the most curious. The word
““mena’”’ is apparently a suffix, and the main part is the
word ‘“‘mungara.” This is exactly the same word that
has puzzled me when discussing the native words for
stone implements (1). Milligan states that the Southern
tribes used the word mungara to denote “a flint.” If
that be so, it is hardly probable that the Eastern tribes
used exactly the same word to denote “sand.” One of

(1) The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements,
Pap. and Proceed. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1908.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, PH.D., ETC. Ii13

the two must be wrong, and there is a great proba-
bility that the translation “a flint’ is wrong. The second
word, ‘nguna, which could also be written ’ngana or
‘ngara seems to indicate that the word for sand in the
dialect of the Southern tribes must be similar to that of
the Eastern tribes. It is therefore very probable that

Mun-ga-ra or

Mun-ga-na

is the Tasmanian word for sand.

Considering that the largest and favourite camps are
always situated on nice warm sandy soil, it might be ex-
pected that the word for “ camping ground” might give
a clue.

Milligan gives the following words for encamp-
TASINE =
Eastern Tribes—Lena wughta rotaleebana.
Southern Tribes—Line rotali.

We know that the word eleebana in particular ro(o)t-
eleebana an emphasis of the good qualities, is frequently
used, and it is therefore certain that the words

Lena wughta

Line
really express the word for camp, and rotali or rotalee-
bana simply mean that lena wughta or line are exceed-
ingly good.

Ling Roth literally translates

Lena wughta rotaleebana
hut earth long,

meaning thereby that on such places more permanent
structures were erected. (It has been shown on pp. 107-
Iii that the natives constructed two sorts of huts or
break-winds—those which on the ramblings of small
parties were to last for a night only, and those more
permanent ones to last for a season; hence the last-
named—viz., the above word—explains itself. Aborig.,

p. 189.)
It would be out of place to go here into the discus-

sion of the correctness of this statement, but it is certain
that “ rotaleebana ’”’ was never applied in a chronological.

ei Ay ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

sense to denote the length of a period. Wherever found,
it emphasises the good qualities, but not bad ones.

Admitting that the word “wughta” stands for
“earth,” that is to say in the meaning of ground or soil,
we come to a quite different translation if we assume
that “lena”? means “water.” The literal translation is,
therefore, according to my opinion,

lena wughta rotaleebana
water soil very good.

Now, what is the meaning of this? To‘anybody who
has actually seen the camping grounds there cannot be
the slightest doubt as to its interpretation. A warm
sandy soil was a most essential feature for a camping
ground, and to make it perfect it was necessary that it
should be close to fresh water (liena or lin’-eleebana).
Soil and water being satisfactory, such a locality was
chosen as a camping ground, and it is only too natural
that the primitive mind of the Aborigines should choose
those 'two qualities which were most essential to them to
express the name of the locality. Water and soil being
good, it must be a satisfactory place to dwell on, argued
the primitive mind, hence its designation for encamp-
ment grounds. This is certainly a more probable trans-
lation than “the huts of earth constructed for long
duration.”

Unfortunately, however, this interpretation of the
word for camping ground does not contain any indica-
tion of the word for “sand.” If the soil, the ground,
the “ wughta,’ was good, this presumed that it was of
an arenaceous nature, but this does not throw any light
on the meaning of the words mun-ga-ra and mun-ga-na.
These words may stand for sand along the shore, but
their literal meaning is at present unknown.

12. TOPAZ.—Under the above headings Milligan
gives the following words :—

Eastern Tribes—Tendeagh.
Southern Tribes—Mugramallee.

It will at once be seen that two completely different
substances are enumerated under the same English
heading.

BY UIA NOMIC) PIGDh, WINS |) bray

The first word means “ red,” while in the second we
find the word for “ white ” (mallee). The first was there-
fore a ‘‘ red” and the second a “ white”’ mineral. Now,
whatever colours occur in topaz, red topazes are of such
rare occurrence, and to my knowledge only found in
Brazil, that it is ‘hardly probable that this variety was
distinguished by the Aborigines of Tasmania under a
special name.

I think it more probable that one of those interested
in the collection of native words showed a cornelian to
an Aborigine, and the latter simply replied “tendeagh,”
meaning thereby “red.” As it is pretty certain that
mineralogical knowledge was not the strongest point of
the early settlers, the cornelian stone was mistaken for
a topaz.

Topazes occur in Tasmania, as it is well known; and
it is probable that the second word, indicating a “* white ”
stone, really refers to topaz. On the other hand, we
had under the heading pebble (rolled quartz) the words
kugha weenya. There seems to be a certain similarity
between the words “mugra” and “kugha,”’ but I am
unable to say whether this view is correct or not. The
scarcity of topaz pebbles in Tasmania, except Flinders
Island, suggests the idea that “mugra” rather means
quartz, perhaps chalcedony, or even wood opal (1) than
topaz.

However that may be, it is certain that under the
heading topaz two widely different minerals were in-
cluded. The first is a red one, most probably cornelian ;
the second a white one, most probably quartz or chalce-
dony, but most unlikely topaz.

12) DIABAS, BASAL eS ARCHALAN SE€HIST.
—In a paper previously read before this Society (2), I
expressed the opinion that the words

Lenn-parenna
Leni-carpeny
Loan-tennina
Noan-yale

(1) Occurring in fine white opaque pieces near Mount
Morriston.

(2) The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements,
Pap. and Proceed. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1908.

res0(5) ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

represented certain Tasmanian rocks, most probably

diabas and granite. I am now in the position to con-

firm this opinion—in fact, it is now possible to make

out the meaning of the first and last word, and as the

remaining two are in all probability identical with the

first, the problem has been satisfactorily solved.
Lenn-parenna

is unquestionably a composite word, and at least two
words are known to me in which the word “ parenna.”
forms the attribute. These are

Matta-perenna—Penis
Commena-purrenah—beard.

The first of these two words is composed of mattas=
ball—testicles and

Perenna==spear.
the second of

Commena-=chin, and
Purrenah spear.

We have, therefore,

Matta—perenna

Ball—spear—pennis
Cemmena—perenna
Chin—spear- beard.

The last composition is rather illustrative; the
pristles growing on the chin look like tiny spears. Now,
if we analyse the word

Lenn-parenna,
we have

Lenn—loin—stone,
Parenna—spear,

therefore the literal translation is
Stone—spear,

or, as we would say, spear stone. Now, can we identify
any of the rocks with this “spear stone’’? The answer
is, Yes, and the identification is as easy as it is plain. It
is the basalt that is meant by the word spear stone. The
fine colunms of basalt—for instance at Cape Raoul—
make it perfectly intelligible why the Aborigines should
call this rock spear stone. There is hardly anything

BY FRITZ NOETLING, PH.D.,; ETC. 117

more suggestive of a bundle of spears than these regular
thin columns of rock placed side by side.

The lenn-parenna is the basalt, there cannot be the
slightest doubt, but I think it also includes the diabas.
Though not quite as regularly, diabas also breaks in
columnar pieces; for instance the organ pipes (1) on
Mount Wellington, and it is therefore more than prob-
able that this rock was also called “spear stone.’ In
fact, it is very probable that the pieces of columnar
diabas found on the camping grounds, and used as
choppers, were designated lenn-parenna in distinction
of the real tronatta.

The last word, noan-yale, unquestionably means
“white stone.’ I have above pointed out that yale—
gale—male means white, and as noan—loan—loin=
stone, the whole word must mean a “white stone.”
Now, this is a word used by the Western and North-
Western tribes, and the question arises which kind of
rock could they have designated as “white stone’?
There can be not the slightest doubt that this rock is
represented by the archaean schists. Archaean schists
of a white colour form the most conspicuous rock in
Western and North-Western Tasmania, and there is,
therefore, every probability that the “ noan-yale” is re-
presented by this rock.

In this paper the names of about 16 substances be-
longing to the mineral kingdom have been examined,
and we see that we can classify them under three head-
ings, viz

(a) Minerals proper, including substances derived
from the roasting of a mineral and the burn-
ing of wood ;

(b) Rocks ;

(1) The designation ‘‘ organ pipes” for this occurrence of
columnar diabas is a curious modern parallel to the “spear
stone” of the Aborigines. The Tasmanian compared the rock
with a bundle of spears, the modern mind with a row of pipes
as usually exhibited in an organ. Supposing a superior being
suddenly arrived at Hobart, and, pointing to Mount Wellington
in order to obtain the name of the rock forming the precipice,
received the rather startling answer—organ pipes. I leave it to
the reader to work out the logical conclusion for himself.

118 ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

A, The minerals are
it, (Cowl
(a) Coal, s.s.
Co(n)a-ra, lit. probably black.
(b) Charcoal (artificial produce).
Loa-ra, lit. probably black.
Maw-ba-na, lit. black.

. Iron ore, either limonite or haematite.
La-ta, meaning unknown.
2, Ole.
(a) Red ochre (artificial produce).
Ba-la-wini, lit. blood.
sex (b) Yellow ochre (natural ?)
Ma-la-ne, meaning unknown

4. ‘Quartz (?)
Kugha-winya, meaning unknown.
Kughra-mali, “ white” kughra.
5. Cornelian (?).
Tendeagh, lit. red.

6. Crystal of unknown kind (quartz ?).
ee ¢ meaning unknown
Eka 5 ‘= eae:

a Sallie

Lieno-wittye, lit. from the water.

8. Topaz (?). :

(See quartz and cornelian).
Bee Rogks. gc} crott ceriiluest

ne Basalt, Diabas.edoor jo antsarligaw 3

_Lenn-parenna, | dit, Cass stone; woman

aeode Afehiaeda' schist: eo ie labo
aq io Moan- yale, lit. white stone.

3 FCEEEOIE ot wanaioe baa tind ft aviers Gta nen

Po+ta-mali; itl eo! e white? ‘pota J meaning

~ Po-nin-gali, Tit.’ the.” White ”” “ponin of unknown.

BY. FRITZ NOETLING, PH.D., F.RS.T.,; ETC. IIgQ_

-4. Pipeclay.

Pen-ga-na mali, lit. the “ white
pengana | meaning
Man-na-na mali, lit. the “ white” {unknown.
manana )

5. Hornstone, Porcellanite.

Tro-na, meaning unknown.
Mora-trona, perhaps “black” or ~ heavy ”
- trona.

C. Substances resulting from the weathering of
rocks.

isan:

Munga-ra (mena), meaning unknown.
2. Argillaceous soil, Clay.

Pen-ga-na

meaning unknown.
Man-na-na f 2

We see it is a meagre list on the whole, yet, con-
sidering the low state of civilisation, it is astonishing
that the Aborigines distinguished even this number.

We know that at least one kind of rock, the “ horn-
stone,” in its numerous varieties, was of utmost import-
ance to the Aborigines, and next to it, for ornamental
purposes, came the “ red ochre,” which was closely fol-
lowed by “coal,” that is to say, “ charcoal.” It is, there-
fore, not astonishing that these three substances were
distinguished by special names; neither is it surprising
that the original mineral from which the iselall ochre was
obtained was given a special name.

It is also hardly astonishing that certain rocks, like
diabas, basalt, freestone, and schist, which form such
conspicuous features in the Tasmanian landscape, were
distingiiished under \different names: All these sub-
stances, which either played an important role in the
daily life, or were closely associated with the features
of the country, were distinguished by special names.
Yet there are a few more substances of which the Tas-
manian words have been preserved for which no such
importance can be claimed. These are yellow, ochre,

120 ABORIGINES NAMES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS.

quartz (crystal), cornelian and pipeclay, and salt. In
several instances, viz., salt, pipeclay, and cornelian, it
could be proved that the words used had no special
meaning appertaining to these substances, but that it
was really the transcription of other words, and the same
probably applies to the remaining words.

On the whole, the list contains the names of 16 sub-
stances, only 7, or perhaps 9, of which can be considered
to have played an important role in the life of the
Aborigines. These are arranged according to im-
portance :—

1. Hornstone (incl. porcellanite, breccia, and other
siliceous minerals).

Tro-na (mora tro-na), meaning unknown.

2. Red ochre.
Ba-la-wine, lit. blood.

3. Charcoal (powdered).
Loa-ra, lit. black.

4. Iron ore (limonite or haematite).
La-ta, meaning unknown.
a -

5. Basalt, incl. Diabas.
Lenn-parenna, lit. spear stone.

6. Freestone, i.e. sandstone.

Po-ta-mali, lit. white po-ta, meaning unknown.

7. Archaean schist.
Noan-yale, lit. white stone.

To these we may add

8. Clay, incl. pipeclay and any kind of argillaceous
soil.

Man-na-na

. meaning unknown
Pen-ga-na-(mali) Sona

g. Sand.

Mun-ga-ra-(mena), meaning unknown.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, PH.D., ETC. I2f¢

The remaining substances, viz.,
Coal (mineral coal)
Yellow ochre

Quartz (?)

Cornelian (?)

Crystal of unknown kind (quartz)
Salt

Topaz

were not of the slightest use to the Aborigines, except
that cornelian, quartz, and the crystal of unknown kind,
if found in large pieces, could be used for the manufac-
ture of a tronatta. In fact, we find the quartz pebble
distinctly called trautta. The mineral coal was probably
designated by the same name as charcoal, the words for
yellow ochre and topaz are apocryphic, and there was no
proper word for salt at all.

I may add that only the three of these substances, or
if we consider the “‘red ochre” as an altered iron ore,
only two, were of any importance in the economic life
of the Tasmanians. The hornstone for their stone im-
plements, the red ochre (altered iron ore) for ornamental
purposes; for the latter charcoal was also sometimes
used.

The remaining five substances were noticed and dis-
tinguished, but they did not enter into the routine of
daily life, except perhaps when it was necessary to de-
scribe a certain tract of country.

Now, if it is advisable to transfer the results of this
paper on the language of the archaeolithic man in
Europe, we may conclude that he had a different word
for

Flint (meaning the substance from which the im-

plements were made)

Red ochre

Charcoal,
and that in all probability he distinguished the most
‘conspicuous rocks of the European landscape—sand-
stone, limestone, and shale—by different names. As
columnar basalt is very common in those localities fre-
‘quented by archaeolithic man, it is probable that he alsa

I122- ABORIGINES; NAMES OF MINERALS.AND ROCKS.

distinguished it under a special name, . Sand and clay
were probably also distinguished, but. this may have
limited the vocabulary of archacolithic man in Europe
as far as minerals or rocks are concerned.

If we consider that the primitive language of the
Tasmanians knew only three words for ‘mineral sub-
stances, two of which, charcoal and red ochre, cannot
strictly be considered as such, because they were arti-
ficially produced by means of fire; and as it appears very
uoRabe that the archaoelithic man of Europe knew of
no more, we must wonder when the invention of those
words took place which were used to designate the dif-
ferent substances that were already in use during the
neolithic stage. If we further consider that in the Tas-
manian language the word for “red ochre” means
literally “ blood,” and that for charcoal “ black,” the first
word the human language ever used to designate a
mineral was the onl for “flint,” whatever that may
have been, in Europe. Can anything better illustrate
the enormous progress of the human race since archaeo-
lithic times than a comparison of the single word for
flint with thousands of names by which modern science
distinguishes the minerals and rocks found on our
earth?

NOTEVON BRACHYCOME MELANOGARRAG
SON DER:

WO Byes? Ropwiw. as

(Read 13th September, 1909.)

I take this opportunity of placing on record the oc-
currence of Brachycome melanocarpa, Sonder et F. von
Mueller as a native of Tasmania. It has as yet only
been gathered on the eastern slope of Mount Welling-
ton, in a damp locality at about 3,000 feet altitude, but
probably occurs elsewhere, only its general resemblance
to B. scapiformis, D.C., has caused it to be overlooked.
It has hitherto been recorded from South Australia,
Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland.

A tufted perennial, sending up annual flowering
scapes of usually four to ten inches in height, as in B.
_scapiformis, it differs in being more extensively hirsute ;
the leaf has a long attenuated base or petiole, an ob-
cuneate apex with usually seven bold dentures; the
scape is coarser, with more leafy bracts, or commonly
bears a gradually reduced series of foliage leaves, but
these characters. are: not quite constant for either
species. The involucral bracts are shorter, blunter, and
rather more scarious, and the ray florets are shorter.
But the typical character is found in the achene, inv:
scapiformis this “orgai is flat, ‘smooth, ‘with ‘acute: or
winged edges; while in By -melanocarpa: dit -is:;marrowly
obovate, slightly compressed with very obtuse edges,
usually tuberculate, viscid, and black. The pappus is
formed of many small, radiating flat bristles: .

siamrA mio oi notesoove usiidms Jeg odt io sida
This plant is an interesting addition to our flora.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE GEOLOGY OF

TASMANIA.
SYSTE MAIC, GEOLOGY

THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.
(Gelb els: WOU WAGE)

By L. KeitH Warp, B.A., B.E.
(Assistant Government Geologist.)

(Read 13th September, 1909.)

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS:

. Introduction.
. Previous literature.
. The stratigraphical succession in Tasmania.

. The lithological characters of the Pre-Cambrian rocks,

(a) Schists of aqueous origin.
(b) Schists of igneous origin.

. The structural features of the Pre-Cambrian.

. The genesis, history, and present physiographical features

of the Pre-Cambrian in Tasmania.

. The distribution of the Pre-Cambriarn in Tasmania.

. Nomenclature and correlation.

APPENDIX:

Notes in explanation of the plates.
Table of the Pre-Cambrian succession in North America.

PLATES:

I. Map of Tasmania, showing the distribution of the Pre-

Cambrian.

II. Generalised sections.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 125

I—INTRODUCTION.

It may not be altogether inappropriate, in con-
tributing a paper on the systematic Geology of Tas-
mania, to commence at the bottom of the geological
column.

In the following pages the writer has the honour to
present some portion of the information now available
concerning that great series of rocks which constitutes
the base of the geological record in Tasmania.

‘There are several questions connected with these
rocks and their relations to the succeeding sediments
which cannot but be, in the present state of our know-
ledge, debatable. Yet it may now be confidently asserted
that these rocks are truly Pre-Cambrian in age; and
this paper is largely concerned with the nature of the
evidence upon which this assertion is made. Hitherto
there has been a certain lack of definite information
available, and the accurate classification of the series
has been, in consequence, impossible of achievement.

However, within the last year the work of the
Geological Survey staff has taken Mr. W: H. Twelve-
trees and the writer into areas in which these funda-
mental rocks are well developed, and in which some de-
tails of their relationships to other members of the
geological record are displayed. The geological ex-
ploration of the Great Western Railway route has pro-
vided material for an almost continuous section across
Tasmania from Gormanston to Tyenna; and during
the progress of this work a fund of matter has accumu-
lated which is of inestimable value in the correlation of
the strata encountered. This information is here pre-
sented in so far as it concerns the Pre-Cambrian rocks;
and in the light of these recent discoveries some account
is given of the deductions which may be drawn with
regard to the origin, growth, and decay of the Pre-
Cambrian rocks of Tasmania.

‘726 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

II.—PREVIOUS LITERATURE.

The rocks which are here treated of have been re-
ferred to in the earlier literature which deals with the
Geology of Tasmania as “ Pre-Cambrian” or “ Ar-
chaean”’; but the reasons for which this provisional
classification has been adopted have been admitted to
be insufficient.

Mr. R. M. Johnston has clearly stated (1) the lack
of the necessary evidence required before the “ quartz-
ites and metamorphic rocks” of his Geological Table
(2) could be definitely referred to this position in the
column.

More recently, in a paper read before the Austra-
lasian Association for the Advancement of Science (3),
Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees gave a brief account of “ Prob-
able Pre-Cambrian Strata in Tasmania.” In this paper
Mr. Twelvetrees has stated that the several occurrences

of quartzites, mica schists, and hornblendic schists are
to be referred to the Pre-Cambrian mainly on the
grounds that they are lithologically dissimilar from any
members of the Cambrian, Ordovician, or Silurian sys-
~tems which are capable of more rigid classification.

Since this paper was written the country between
-Tyenna and Gormanston has been geologically ex-
plored, and the uncertainties and doubts have given
place to confident assertions based upon the newly-
acquired information. The increase of knowledge, also,
with regard to the stratigraphical position of the early
Palaeozoic sediments of Tasmania, and the recent cor-
relation of these strata in different parts of the island
have assisted to no small degree in placing the classifi-
cation of the Pre-Cambrian on a firm basis.

The departmental literature which deals with the
several districts in which these rocks are developed is
mentioned below, when reference is made to these
areas.

(1) R. M. Johnston, Geology of Tasmania, 1888, p. 17.
(2) Ibidem, p. 15.
(3) Proceedings A.A.A.S., Adelaide, 1907, p. 466.

BY L. KEITH WARD, BA, BE. - 127
4

I11—THE STRATIGRAPHICAL: SUCCESSION IN
TASMANIA.

It is necessary to consider briefly the succession of
the lower Palaeozoic strata and the relations of these to
the rocks here described, so that the grounds for the
classification of the latter as Pre- Cambrian may be pro-
perly appreciated.

The recognised base of the Ordovician system is the
“Gordon River Limestone.” With this limestone are
associated sandstones and slates (1) which may belong
to the same system.

This fossiliferous limestone at Railton and at the
Humboldt Divide lies directly upon the fossiliferous
Upper Cambrian beds. It is a persistent geological
horizon, and therefore of great stratigraphical im-
portance.

The strata, to which an age greater than that of the
Gordon River limestone may be ascribed, whether on
palaeontological or on stratigraphical grounds, are
these :—

1. The Dundas slate series—with the associated in-
trusive and effusive porphyritic igneous rocks.
‘These rocks may be equivalent with slates and
sandstones at the Needles, and near Mounts
Mueller and Wedge.

2. The Catyoline Creek beds, and their fossiliferous
equivalents discovered by Mr. T. Stephens on
the Humboldt Divide in the Florentine Valley.

3. The “tubicolar’’ sandstone (commonly known
as the “pipestem” sandstone); and the “ dis-

coidal ” sandstone overlying it.

4. The Denison Range conglomerates and quartz-
ites, together with the similar rocks constituting
the West Coast Range conglomerate series. The
pebbly sandstone and conglomerate of Railton
also probably belong to the same horizon.

5. The sandstones, quartzites, slates, grits, and
conglomerates of Cabbage Tree Hill, Beacons-
field.

(1) See Section III.

128 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

A short explanation appears necessary in order that
the character of the evidence, upon which the age of
these five groups has been stated to be, in all proba-
bility, Cambrian, may be clearly stated.

1. The Dundas slate series consists of clay slates,
sandstones, conglomerates, and breccias, with which are
associated a characteristic series of massive and schis-
tose igneous rocks. They extend from the North Coast
between Penguin and Ulverstone to Birch’s Inlet on
Macquarie Harbour, and probably still further to the
southward.

The rocks of this series are judged to be of greater
antiquity than the Gordon River limestone on strati-
graphical evidence (1).

2. The Caroline Creek beds consist of yellow sand-
stones, which are fossiliferous in both localities where
they outcrop, and have been definitely referred to the
Upper Cambrian upon the evidence of the organic re-
mains preserved in them.

3. The “tubicolar” sandstone forms a well-marked
horizon, which has been recognised at Mount Zeehan,
Middlesex, Mount Claude, the Five-mile Rise near
Lorinna, and on the Loddon Plains to the eastward of
the Frenchman’s Cap.

To this horizon has hitherto been assigned a much
higher position in the geological column by other
authors. The writer considers that it is of Cambrian
age for the reasons here briefly stated :—

The peculiar tubular impressions have been recog-
nised in the West Coast Range conglomerate on the
Mount Lyell peaks.

The tubicolar sandstone proper overlies the West
Coast Range conglomerate conformably at Mount
Zeehan, and the relationship of the two formations is
shown in Mr. Waller’s section across Mount Zeehan (2).

Hence, whatever may be the nature of these proble-
matical fossil casts, they are persistent through at least

(1) Geological Survey of Tasmania, Bulletin No. 5, pp.
8-10.

(2) G. A. Waller, “ Report on the Zeehan Silver-Lead
Mining Field,” 1904.

. BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 129

a portion of the West Coast Range conglomerate series
and the overlying sandstone. They have not been ob-
served in any other sandstones, and never in actual
association with any other fossils. So we may apparently
conclude with safety that the tubicolar sandstone is the
next succeeding formation to the West Coast Range
conglomerate (where the full sequence is represented)
and of slightly less antiquity.

Moreover, during the recent exploration of the
country in the vicinity of the Frenchman’s Cap, the
writer found an extensive development of the tubicolar
sandstone in the Loddon River Valley. Here it is con-
formably overlain by another white sandstone of similar
grain; and in this latter sandstone are certain peculiar
discoidal impressions. The exact nature of these mark-
ings is unknown, and Mr. Etheridge, of the Australian
Museum, to whom specimens have been referred, has
declined to express an opinion concerning them, since
no traces of the organic structure remain.

Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees has pointed out that entirely
similar, but smaller, discoidal moulds exist in the fossil-
iferous Upper Cambrian beds of Caroline Creek. In
the event that the discoidal markings should prove to
possess stratigraphical value, the discoidal sandstone
must belong to the Cambrian system.

It should perhaps be here stated that the tubicolar
sandstone has formerly been looked upon as of Silurian
age, the reason ‘being that at Zeehan and the Five-mile
Rise strata bearing Silurian fossils have been found
above this sandstone.

A re-examination of the occurrences of the tubicolar
sandstone is therefore required, with a view to the dis-
covery of a possible break in the succession. Should
such a break be found between the pipestem rock and
the superincumbent Silurian, the explanation of the
previous classification of the strata will be provided.

4. The Denison Range is built up of a great series
of siliceous sediments—-crystalline pebbly sandstones,
quartzites, and conglomerates. These rocks have been
traced without interruption for many miles from the
Thumbs across the gorge of the Gordon River, and
northwards along the Denison Range.

130 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

The writer has observed a small isolated hill of red-
dish quartzite entirely similar to that of the Denison
Range on the western border of the central plateau, at
a spot just to the north of the Linda Track, and a mile
to the eastward of Mount Arrowsmith.

Moreover, this sedimentary series, which consists of
conglomerate, pebbly sandstone, crystalline sandstone,
and quartzite, is, apparently, precisely that which is re-
ferred to as the West Coast Range conglomerate series.
That is to say, the Denison Range is composed of rocks
which appear to be identical in all respects with those
which contribute so largely to the bulk of Mounts
Jukes, Huxley, Owen, Lyell, Sedgwick, Murchison,
Farrell, and Zeehan. The lithological resemblance be-
tween the rocks from all these places is striking; and
the differences between the rocks of this character and
all other known sediments in Tasmania are equally well
marked.

These rocks have hitherto been considered to be
much younger, but there has been no satisfactory proof
of age. The West Coast Range conglomerate has been
placed at the base of the Silurian system for the reason
that it is clearly older than the tubicolar sandstone.
The probable Cambrian age of the latter formation has
already been indicated here, and if this be admitted a
still greater antiquity must be assigned to the West
Coast Range conglomerate series.

By far the most important information bearing on
this matter which has yet been gathered is that which
was obtained early in 1908 by Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees,
in his westward traverse of the country between the
Valley of Rasselas and the Prince of Wales Range.

The bedrock of the Valley of Rasselas is the Ordo-
vician limestone, with a strike of N. 25deg. W. and a
north-easterly dip at an angle of 7odeg. This limestone
rests unconformably upon the siliceous sediments of
the Denison Range (1), which strike N. 30deg. W. and
dip (at the Thumbs and Mount Wright) towards the
north-east at 50deg.

Since the Gordon River limestone horizon 1s re-
garded as the base of the Ordovician in Tasmania, it

(1) See Section I.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 131

necessarily follows that the great series of quartzites
and conglomerates must be of Cambrian (or even pos-
sibly of Pre- Cambrian) age.

Confirmatory evidence again is afforded by the ap-
parent relationship of the West Coast Range conglome-
rate to the Dundas slate series (2).

Moreover, the porphyritic igneous rocks, which are
partly contemporaneous with these Dundas slates, have
never been seen in the form of pebbles in the West
Coast Range conglomerate. Diligent search has been
made by the writer in localities where the two rocks
are in the closest proximity, and always without finding
any rounded pebbles of the porphyries, or the schists
derived from them, in the conglomerate. This seems
to, him to be highly significant, although negative
evidence.

Again, certain structural phenomena are more
readily explicable by the view that the porphyries have
intruded into the conglomerate beds, rather than that
subsequent complex faulting has produced the isolation
of blocks of the sediment within the igneous boundaries.

At Railton, the pebbly sandstone and conglomerate
appears, from its position, to underlie the Caroline
Creek fossiliferous sandstone.

The relation of the Caroline Creek beds to the
Dundas slates has not yet been determined, so that a
complete chain of evidence regarding the exact age of
the conglomerates and the slates has not yet been ob-
tained.

No fossiliferous zone which may serve as a line of
demarcation for the base of the Cambrian system has
yet been detected.

Our knowledge at the present time is such that it
seems advisable to include the Denison Range and West
Coast Range conglomerates within the Cambrian sys-
tem, of which they would therefore seem to form the
base.

5. In the vicinity of Beaconsfield a series of sand- ,
stones, quartzites, slates, grits, and conglomerates are
found to dip under the Ordovician limestone, which lies

(2) See Section JV.

132 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

to the eastward. But the junction of the two systems-
is rendered complex by faulting (1).

These infra-Ordovician sediments cannot yet be
satisfactorily correlated with any of the other develop-.
ments of Cambrian rocks in Tasmania.

The character and succession of these beds, albeit
questions of great interest, cannot here be more fully
discussed. We are concerned rather with the relation-
ship of these Cambrian rock groups to the foundations
upon which they rest.

In this matter also the most satisfactory evidence
has been gathered by Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees near the
northern extremity of the Denison Range.

Passing westwards, Mr. Twelvetrees has observea
that the siliceous sediments, upon which the Ordovician
limestone rests unconformably, themselves rest uncon-
formably upon the foliated rocks which are here re-
ferred to the Pre-Cambrian. The actual junction has
been observed on the western side of the Denison
Range, in the neighbourhood of the North Star (2).

The writer has observed the similar reddish quartzite
on the edge of the central plateau near Mount Arrow-
smith, resting unconformably on the quartz-mica
schists which are described below. -

In the valley of the South Loddon River the tubi-
colar and discoidal sandstone have been observed rest-
ing unconformably upon micaceous schists (3).

At Mount Farrell, the eastern wall of the valley oi
the Sophia River is constituted of the quartz-mica
schists mentioned below. These give place, on the
western wall of the valley, to the West Coast Range
conglomerate and quartzite which form the ridge of
Mount Farrell; and these in turn are followed by the

(1) See Section TIL.
(2) See Section I.
(3) See Section II.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 133

‘Dundas slates on the western slopes of the mount (1).
Unfortunately the junction of the siliceous sediments
which form the backbone of Mount Farrell with the
quartzite schists on the other side of the valley of the
Sophia River, is hidden by the later sediments. But
the sequence displayed by this section is significant.

The relationship between the Cambrian sediments
of the Beaconsfield district and the schists of the Asbes-
tos Range is shown diagrammatically in a section (2).
The relationship is, in part at least, masked by an in-
trusion of serpentine and aplite between the rocks of
the two systems.

The porphyritic igneous rocks, which have now been
observed at Mount Farrell (3), Gunn’s Plains (4), and
North Dundas (5), to be contemporaneous with certain
members of the Dundas slate series are only known as
intrusives in the quartz-mica schists.

The rounded pebbles of the West Coast Range con-
glomerate are composed of fragments of the quartzites
and quartz-mica schists described below. All of the
more durable varieties of these latter rocks are repre-
sented in the conglomerate.

We may, therefore, in summing up the evidence
collected, state the following facts :—

(a) Whatever may be the inter-relationship of the
several groups here referred to the Cambrian
system, there is one feature which they pos-
sess in common—viz., where an actual contact
has been observed, they are found to occupy a
higher stratigraphical position than the schists,
now for the first time strictly termed -Pre-
Cambrian.

(b) The Cambrian formations are separated from
the subjacent schists by a strong unconformity
wherever contacts have been observed.

(1) See Section IV. Also Geological Survey of Tasmania,
Bulletin No. 3.

(2) See! Section III.

(3) Geological Survey of Tasmania, Bulletin No. 3, pp. 17
sand 34.

(4) Geological Survey of Tasmania, Bulletin No. 5, p. 9.

4 ) Geelogical Survey of Tasmania, Bulletin No. 6, pp. 17

and 38.

134 THE GHOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

(d) Igneous rocks which were formed contem-
poraneously with certain of the Pre-Ordovician
rocks appear only as intrusive rocks intersect-
ing the Pre-Cambrian schists.

(e) The Pre-Cambrian rocks have been the source
whence the material of certain of the Cambrian
formations (lying stratigraphically at the base
of this system) has been derived.

The writer would therefore submit that the Pre-
Cambrian age of certain rocks, described below, has
now been satistactorily established.

IV — Pee LiTaO @ GiC Nl CriaWwAGm Dixssm@)s
THE PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS.

The bulk of these fundamental schists is, beyond
doubt, constituted of metamorphosed sediments of
aqueous origin; but there are present also certain com-
ponent parts of the series to which an igneous origin
would be ascribed by the writer. It is proposed to give
a brief description of these separately.

(a) Schists of Aqueous Origin.

The evidence upon which the origin of these rocks
is affirmed is not equally conclusive in every case. But
when any large area, in which these rocks are developed,
is examined, the observer cannot but be convinced of
the unity of origin of the several varieties which are to
be found inextricably interlaminated.

The greatest weight, in determining the origin of the
series, must necessarily be placed upon those varieties
which afford the least questionable evidence. And the
varieties which, more than others, possess this quality
are those in which original characteristics of composi-
tion and texture have been least masked by molecular
readjustment and mechanical deformation. These are
the schistose conglomerates

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 135

Many slightly different varieties of these exist, and
although the origin of most is readily recognisable at
once, that of others becomes apparent only after the
progress of weathering.

The usual variety of schistose conglomerate is per-
haps best seen in the beach exposures between Ulver-
stone and Penguin—notably at Goat Island. The
pebbles are quartzose, and are often greatly elongated.
The finer-grained portion of the rock is precisely similar
to many of the micaceous schists which do not contain

pebbles.

A more altered, but still more easily recognisable
conglomerate occurs at the eastern end of Calder’s Pass
and on the low country between that pass and the Jane
River. In this variety the jasperoid pebbles are exces-
sively flattened, and often sheared, by the crushing
forces.

Not far from the locality where this variety was
seen, and close to the northern extremity of the Prince
of Wales Range, the writer observed a quartzitic schist,
which seems to be a crushed quartzose conglomerate.
The rock when freshly broken appears to be a quartzitic
schist of the usual type described below, but weathered
surfaces show smooth elongated protuberances stand-
ing in relief above the general surface of the rock. The
character of these weathered surfaces is thus entirely
similar to that of the schistose conglomerate of Goat
Island, near Ulverstone. And the rock would appear to
be a true conglomerate, the nature of which is not at
first sight obvious, on account of the similarity of com-
position between the original pebbles and interstitial
sand, and the consequent like alteration of coarser and
finer ingredients by secondary processes.

In several other places within the observed limits of
the Pre-Cambrian the writer has observed rocks which
he regards as conglomerates, the original characters of
which are masked by an intimate impregnation with
silica. They now appear as dense quartzites, showing
slight variations of colour and texture in the several
portions of the same rock mass. These portions, which
thus differ inter se, exhibit semi-rounded to subangular
outlines.

With these crushed and altered sediments of coarser
grain are associated a great variety of schists and

136 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

quartzites, in such a way that the whole group must be
considered together as a series of sediments formed by
aqueous agencies. The interstratification of the schis-
tose conglomerates and the genetically related argii-
laceous, micaceous, and quartzitic schists is perhaps
most clearly displayed on the northern coast, near Ulver-
stone. There the beds are tilted, so that they stand on
edge, and the succession of the several varieties is seen
to be just such as is usually found where sediments have
been deposited under varying conditions.

The variety displayed by these schists of finer grain
is remarkable. The nature and proportions of the con-
stituent minerals, and the degree of schistosity acquired,
all vary from point to point.

Most commonly the schists are constituted of an
aggregate of quartz and a sericitic mica. These quartz-
mica schists pass on the one hand, by insensible grada-
tions, into pure quartzites, and on the other into mica
schists. The intermediate varieties are characteristic of
the series as a whole.

The quartzite-schists are at times remarkable for the
perfection of the cleavage which they display, the de-
velopment of the mica being such that thin flakes, no
more than a millimetre in thickness, can be successively
detached. In some cases this fissile schist exhibits a
minute but elaborate puckering, which shows admirably
the nature of the stresses to which the rock has been
subjected. This latter variety is especially noticeable
on the Linda Track, between the Collingwood and
Franklin Rivers.

The argillaceous schists are widely distributed
through the regions occupied by these Pre-Cambrian
rocks, and are “especially abundant in the neighbour-
hood of Cox’s Bight. They show clearly, in some cases,
the original planes of stratification, and are little dif-
ferent in any particulars from unaltered shales. In other
cases these argillaceous varieties have had a slaty
cleavage impressed upon them, and are converted into
true slates.

They merge into schists, in which mica predomi-
nates. These possess a colour which usually varies be-
tween pale green and yellowish grey, and possess a
greasy feel. The quartz is commonly restricted to len-
ticles and wavy bands. Other varieties are reddish from

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. tay)

the development of haematite. In other varieties, again,
the colour is dark grey, from the presence of some
colouring matter the nature of which is obscure. Some
of the dark varieties are clearly graphitic, but are not
commonly seen. .

In the upper part of the Collingwood River valley
some garnetiferous varieties have been found by the
writer. And near the latter, as elsewhere throughout
the neighbouring district, there are present some em-
bryonic minerals in the schist which, from their pre-
sence, exhibits knots and complementary depressions
on the cleavage surfaces.

The quartzites found among these markedly schis-
tose rocks are frequently perfectly free from all signs of
foliation. They are almost always pure white in colour
and extremely dense in texture.

The freedom from foliation in these rocks is prob-
ably largely due to an original purity of composition.
The absence of the foliation, nevertheless, appears re-
markable when the quartzitic beds, perfectly free from
visible schistosity, are seen interlaminated with the
foliated mica schists. The microscopical characters of
such quartzites have not yet been studied.

It may be that the quartzitic bands have moved as
a whole before the crushing forces. However, it ap-
pears to the writer more probable that the foliated ap-
pearance of the micaceous schists is largely caused by:
recrystallisation under pressure rather than by actual
displacement of adjacent particles. Over and above this
foliation there has been induced also, in very many
cases, elaborate crumpling; but a foliated texture may
result where crumpling has not occurred. It will be seen
later that in some places the quartzites are folded and
fractured.

Summing up, the several schists of which mention
has been made must undoubtedly represent a great
geries of sediments—psephites, psammites, and pelites
—which have suffered dynamical metamorphism.

This lithological division of the Pre-Cambrian com-
prises by far the larger portion of the rocks to which
reference is made in this paper.

138 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

(b) Schists of Igneous Origin.

Associated with these quartzites, quartz-mica schists,
argillaceous, and micaceous schists are certain amphi-
bolites, to which the writer would ascribe an igneous
origin.

The largest development of these amphibolites is
that which has been observed in the Rocky River dis-
trict by Mr. W.-H. Twelvetrees.

Less extensive occurrences have been recorded from
Hamilton-on-Forth and the Collingwood River Valley.
In both of these latter cases there is a notable develop-
ment of garnet and zoisite.

The detailed description of these interesting rock
types is postponed, pending a more minute micro-
scopical examination.

The only other rocks of igneous origin which may
possibly belong to the Pre-Cambrian are certain pegma-
tites, which have been found in the Collingwood River
Valley and in the neighbourhood of Calder’s Pass.
There is, however, a very strong probability that these
have been introduced into the schist series in Devonian
time.

V—THE STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE
PRE-CAMBRIAN.

Few constant features of structure have been re-
corded from the several exposures of these rocks which
have been examined. The distribution is so wide that,
in the absence of complete and systematic surveying,
this is not*a matter for surprise. And although much
is to be gained by the careful examination of the struc-
tural characters of the group as a whole, little achieve-
ment has so far been possible in these matters.

The recognition of any definite horizons in the sys-
tem is naturally a matter of importance for purposes of
stratigraphical delimitation.

In the case of the highly schistose and crumpled
members of the system, it is almost impossible to arrive
at any satisfactory conclusion regarding the total thick-
ness of the beds or their original order of stratification.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.H. 139

With regard to the development of these rocks on
the South Coast of Tasmania, Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees
has estimated the thickness at 13,000 feet as a minimum
(1). This calculation is based on the assumption that
no large anticlinal folds exist, and that the average dip
is not less than Io degrees.

During the recent western exploration work in the
neighbourhood of the Frenchman’s Cap, the writer was
enabled to make some observations which should here
be recorded.

The outstanding feature of the Pre-Cambrian in that
region is the existence of a considerable thickness of
bedded quartzite schist lying in an approximately hori-
zontal position upon the top of the quartz schist, quartz-
mica schists, and micaceous or argillaceous schists.

Viewing this thick layer of quartzite schist from the
tops of the ranges, one gains the conviction that it is a
single horizon, resulting from the alteration of a once
continuous horizon of sandstone. This horizon appa-
rently extended from the Raglan Range southwards to
the Frenchman’s Cap and the Surveyor’s Range, and
eastwards to a mountain (called by the writer Algonkian
Mountain) at the northern extremity of the Prince of
Wales Range, and slightly to the westward of the axis
of that range. Whether the white serrate peaks of the
Prince of Wales Range are on this horizon the writer
cannot say.

Only the highest portions of the ranges mentioned
are composed of this quartzite schist, which in most
cases stands up boldly with precipitous walls above the
slopes carved in the softer schists.

From a short distance the quartzite schist appears
to be a bedded sandstone, since the progress of weather-
ing accentuates the original bedding planes. But on
closer examination a slight schistosity is noticeable
throughout the rock.

This horizon, as a whole, is not free from foliation,
mod the best view of the folding is obtained from the

(1) Proceedings A.A.A.S., Adelaide, 1907, “ Probable Pre-
Cambrian Strata in Tasmania,’ p. 470.

140 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

highest peak of the Surveyor’s Range. Looking thence
towards the north, the eastern portion of the summit of
the Frenchman’s Cap is seen to be folded into gentle
anticlines and synclines, and to have been fractured.
The other portions of the horizon appear to have re-
mained unaffected, and to be nearly horizontal. The
massive layers so plainly visible on the north-western
and western faces of Algonkian Mountain appear quite
undisturbed by folding forces, and dip at a low angle
towards the south-west.

Between these remaining summits of the ranges the
quartzite schist stratum has been removed by denuda-
tions, and the subjacent schists are exposed.

The horizon of quartzite schist rests unconformably
upon the quartz-schist and mica-schists, which show a
much more intense folation. ‘This unconformity is
clearly seen on travelling along the top of the Sur-
veyor’s Range: The higher peaks of this range (which
lies between the Jane and Acheron Rivers) are of the
more massive variety, and the abrupt change into the
highly contorted schists of the main mass of the range
is most noticeable.

The existence of plainly horizontal layers of the rock
overlying the contorted schists is a strong argument for
not only the presence of a marked unconformity, but
also for a long period of erosion between the time of
foliation of the lower schists and that of the deposition
of the upper quartzose sediments, which have since
been rendered slightly schistose.

Confirmatory evidence must be obtained throughout
this region before these views can be fully accepted;
but the writer is strongly of the opinion that there is a
distinct unconformity present in the district, and that
two distinct periods of sedimentation are represented,
and that a protracted period of erosion has intervened
between the deposition of the lower and upper members.
The greater degree of contortion displayed by the lower
series may be accounted for by the fact that these rocks
have suffered plication before the upper horizon was
formed.

If it be granted that there are two such distinct
series among the Pre-Cambrian sediments in Tasmania,

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 141

an interesting comparison may be drawn between the
Tasmanian occurrences and those of Canada. This
matter is discussed in a later portion of this paper.

In estimating the thickness of the sediments repre-
sented in the region surrounding the Frenchman’s Cap,
it is evident that the structural features, referred to
here, must be duly considered. Enough detailed infor-
mation has not yet been acquired to give even an ap-
proximate idea of the true thickness of the upper and
lower series of which mention has been made.

The writer claims that there is a marked uncon-
formity, above which several hundred feet of sediments
exist, and below which a very much greater thickness
is represented by the more schistose members of the
Pre-Cambrian. About 2,000 feet of the latter schists
are visible in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Frenchman’s Cap, if we calculate only the vertical dis-
tance between the lower limit of the upper quartzite on
the top of the range and the bottom of the river gorges
carved in the foliated schists. But it is more than prob-
able that the vertical thickness of the schistose strata in.
this region differs from that of the original beds. No
account has been taken of the effects of compression
and foliation, nor can these be quantitatively estimated
in the present state of our knowledge.

The recognition of two distinct horizons in the Pre- ©
Cambrian necessitates a very careful treatment of the
structural features of strike and dip, unless it is per-
fectly plain which horizon is under examination.

In the region traversed by the Franklin River and
its tributaries the upper horizon is, on the whole, as in-
dicated above, nearly horizontal, but the variations in
dip and strike of the lower members are very marked.

A general absence of regularity of structure is
noticeable in every district, and the axes of the main
foldings do not appear to have extended for long dis-
tances.

Nor have the folds exerted any appreciable effect
upon the topography. No traces of ancient fold ranges
have remained in those areas where these rocks have
been examined by the writer. And the outlines of the
present mountain ranges are noticeably independent of
the rock structure. fees een

Ting

142 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

Where the Pre-Cambrian rocks are penetrated by
igneous intrusions, the latter do not, in general, appear
to acquire forms which are moulded by the structure of
the schists. The only exception which may be cited is
that of the small dykes or veins of pegmatite in the
valley of the Collingwood River.

Having come to the conclusion that the great bulk
of these Pre-Cambrian rocks represent aqueous sedi-
ments, more or less altered subsequently to their de-
position, but accumulated under conditions similar to
those existing on continental borders at the present
time, we naturally look for the sources of the fragmental
material which built up these ancient beds of con-
glomerate, sandstone, and shale.

The composition of these beds gives some idea of
the nature of the rocks whence the fragments were de-
rived. For the vast accumulation of clay and silica must
have resulted from the disintegration of quartz and alu-
minous silicates. By the action of the many processes
involved in the weathering of such rocks, the transport
of the fragmental matter to the sea, the sorting distri-
bution and final deposition of this material on the sea
floor, these Pre-Cambrian sedimentary beds were built
up.

But there have not yet been seen in situ in Tasmania
any rocks of greater age than these sediments. Detached
boulders (1) have been found which present analogies,
in both composition and structure, with the lower Pre-
Cambrian rocks of other parts of the world; but these
boulders have not yet been traced to their source.

The quartz and aluminous silicates must have been
derived from some still older primary rocks, probably
now hidden beneath the sea.

(1) One of these boulders, of a coarse gneiss, was found
by Mr. G. A. Waller at the 29-mile peg on Innes’ Track to
Barn Bluff. Garnetiferous gneiss boulders also occur in the
permo-carboniferous glacial beds which) outcrop on the North
Coast at Wynyard.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 143

No definite clue being provided in Tasmania, we look
to the Australian continent for signs of the existence of
Archaean rocks, which may be remnants of the Pre-
Cambrian land mass that was the source of these sedi~
ments.

Brief mention is made below of the Australian occur-
rences of Pre-Cambrian rocks. Of these the rocks
which bear most directly upon the question now being
discussed are the gneisses, gneissose granites, and horn-
blendic schists of Western Australia; and the gneisses
of South Australia. These bear the strongest lithological
resemblance to the Archaean rocks of other countries.

The Pre-Cambrian schists of Tasmania may well
have derived their material from these ancient crystal-
line gneisses, schists, and granites, and possibly from
the more proximate southward extensions of the masses
referred to above now covered by the Southern Ocean.

This question of genesis demands a much greater
elaboration than can here be effected. It is sufficient
to state that these quartzites, argillaceous, and mica-
ceous schists and schistose conglomerates constitute
the terrigenous deposits formed on the borders of the
Pre-Cambrian Australis—a land mass known from its
exposed remnants to be competent to provide such
material.

After the prolonged period of sedimentation which
is represented by the lower schists and conglomerates,
a period marked by intense dynamic metamorphism
must have ensued. The subsequent erosion of these
older schists levelled the floor upon which the upper
sediments were deposited.

The schistosity observed in these upper members of
the Pre-Cambrian may have been induced before the
period of deposition of the Cambrian sediments. For
there is a notable difference in appearance between the
appearance of the upper Pre-Cambrian quartzitic schist
and that of any sedimentary rock of later date.

A notable unconformity exists between the Cambrian
and the Pre-Cambrian sediments at the northern end of
the Denison Range. There is, however, not yet suff-
cient evidence available upon which to base an account
of the physiography of Western Tasmania at the time
of the Cambrian sedimentation.

144 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

Orogenic movements, which have tilted the Cam-
brian rocks till they stand vertically in some places,
must have affected the subjacent Pre-Cambrian rocks.
as well.

After the close of the Cambrian period no schistosity
of any moment appears to have been developed in any
of the Tasmanian rocks.

The Ordovician sediments indicate a deep submer-
gence of Western Tasmania beneath the ocean, and
traces of the marine limestones still occupy the beds of
some of the western rivers. These are not deposited
conformably upon the sediments of Cambrian age, and
their position in deep troughs carved in the schists
argues for a mature erosion of the areas covered by the
Pre-Cambrian rocks before submergence in Ordovician
iain’

Since the exposed peaks and ridges of Pre-Cambrian
rocks appear to attain altitudes which are approximately
the same, the idea suggests itself that a peneplain may
have been developed in late Pre-Cambrian or Cambrian
time. This peneplain may have been deeply dissected
before the Ordovician period.. However, this matter
demands much more detailed investigation over the
whole of the Pre-Cambrian terrain.

The area lying between the Raglan Range and the
Prince of Wales Range, examined by the writer, appears.
to have regained many of the fundamental outlines
which it possessed at the beginning of the Ordovician
period. These outlines were masked by the deposition
of Ordovician and Silurian sediments, and then, after an
interval, of those of Permo-Carboniferous and Mesozoic
age.

The only igneous invasion which was sufficiently
widespread to deserve mention here is that of the upper
Mesozoic diabase. This diabase still remains in the form
of outliers capping the mountains built of Cambrian and
Pre-Cambrian rocks. Its distribution argues a much
wider extent than is now apparent, and its existence
postulates a cover of sedimentary rocks, since removed
by subaerial denudation.

Since the close of the Mesozoic era progressive de-
gradation of the whole of Western Tasmania has con-
tinued almost without interruption; and in the final
stages of this long cycle of erosion the physiography of

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 145,

early Palaezoic time has exerted a powerful influence
in the moulding of the land forms of to-day.

The overlying sediments have been worn down, and
great gorges have been carved through the diabase down
on to the Pre-Cambrian bedrock.

On the flanks of these valleys there remain in some
places the remnants of former sedimentary basins. For
instance, on the north-western face of Mount Arrow-
smith lies the fragment of a Silurian sandstone formation
dipping to the westward at a low angle. The same for-
mation has been to a greater degree preserved in the
area lying to the northward of the Raglan Range. And
even here the Nelson River is now steadily removing
the softer sandstone, while the relatively harder quartz
schist of the Raglan Range is forcing the river channel
ever to the northward.

Still more significant of the surviving control exerted
by the lower Palaeozoic physiography over presciit land
forms is the distribution of the limestone in the valleys
of the western rivers—especially of the Gordon River
and its tributaries. Recent exploratory work has proved
a remarkable restriction of limestone (all the exposures.
of which appear to be of Ordovician age) to the bottom
of some of these valleys. In some cases the limestone
is only visible actually in the beds of the rivers which
traverse these valleys. These latter remarks apply to
the Jane and Denison River valleys.

In the case of the Surprise River, which occupies
the gorge between Mount King William Ist and the
Loddon Range, the limestone has been cut through by
the corrosive action of the river, and is now situated a
few feet above river level.

The manner in which these ancient sediments con-
form to the present physiographical outlines is at least
suggestive of the theory here advanced.

But it must be remembered that an explanation of
the phenomena exhibited by such a restricted area can-
not be applied beyond the limits of this area. The
Ordovician limestone of Western Tasmania is not
always found in the depths of the vaileys, and occur-
rences which might seem to contradict the hypothesis
here put forward are probably to be easily explained in
different ways. The corrosive action of the different
rivers may have outstripped erosion and left the lime-

146 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

stone on the higher country; or, again, local displace-
ments of the crusts may give rise to modes of occur-
rence which may seem at variance with this theory.
Yet, in the case of the occurrences of limestone in the
valleys of the Jane and Denison Rivers, at least, we
seem to be forced to the conclusion here stated. It will
be interesting to ascertain the limits over which the
theory may appear applicable as the geological survey
of the island proceeds.

While we may, in the opinion of the writer, safely
accept the theory for the restricted area, it mttst be
borne in mind that changes are continually being
effected. The cycle of erosion now operative has cer-
tainly modified the former features, but the main scheme
of existing topography seems to correspond closely
with that which obtained at the close of the Cambrian
period.

The physiography of the central western area has
been determined by erosion rather than by structure, by
epigene rather than by hypogene agencies.

This account of the physiographical history of the
Pre-Cambrian has been written mainly from the evi-
dence afforded by the central western area, since the
writer is most familiar with that area. Modifications
may be necessary with an increase of information, but
it is contended that this historical outline is substan-
tially correct.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 147

Vt PEt Dist RIB UMTON Or PETE: PR
CAMBRIAN IN TASMANIA.

A map of Tasmania showing the several areas occu-
pied by Pre-Cambrian rocks has been prepared to ac-
company this paper. On this map the several areas are
numbered, and reference is here made to the different
districts in the order in which they have been numbered
on the map.

I. The Asbestos Range area, lying to the west of
Beaconsfield, and extending southwards from the coast-
line at Badger Head, comprises a series of micaceous
schists, slates, and grits, with a strike of N. rodeg. W.
to N. 2zodeg. W. (1). These rocks are bounded on the
east by serpentine and other igneous rocks in the
vicinity of Beaconsfield (2). On the coast-line recent
sands and drift overlap the Pre-Cambrian on both sides
of the range (3).

The southward extension of this belt of schistose has
not yet been fully mapped.

II. At Hamilton-on-Forth there is an exposure of the
Pre- Cambrian bedrock in the gorge of the Forth River.
The rocks represented are quartzites, quartz-mica, mica
ceous and graphitic schists, and with these a belt of
garnetiferous-zoisite-amphibolite.

The strike of the schistose sediments varies from N.
todeg. W. to N. 30deg. W., and they dip to the south-
west.

__ This exposure is covered, save in the river gorge, by
Tertiary basalt; and on being followed southwards is
found to disappear below the Cambrian formations (4).

(1) See W. H. Twelvetrees’ “ Report on Coal near George
Town, and Slate near Badger Head,” 1904.

(2) See W..H. Twelvetrees’ “‘ Report! on, the Mineral Re-
‘sources of the districts of Beaconsfield and Salisbury,” 1903.

(3) See T. Stephens’ “ Notes on the Geology of the North-
West Coast of Tasmania from the River Tamar to Circular
Head,” Proc. Linnaean Soc. of New South Wales, 1908,

(4) See W. H. Twelvetrees’ “ Report on the North-West
Coast Mineral Deposits,’ 1905.

148 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

III. On the northern coast-line, at Ulverstone, 2
complex series of the schistose sediments and quartzites
described above is to be seen (1). These rocks extend
eastwards as far as Button’s Rivulet, and westwards to
the middle of Barkworth’s Bay, west of Goat Island.

On both sides the schists are bounded by Tertiary
basalt.

At the mouth of the Leven River the strike is, on
the average, about N. todeg. E., while to the west of
Goat Island it ranges from N. 12deg. E. to N. 30deg.
E. The dip is to the north-west.

IV. Between Jacob’s Boat Harbour and the Deten-
tion River, on the northern coast, there are found
quartzites and quartz-schists (2). Rocky Cape is built
up of massive bedded quartzites, which extend a mile
and a half southwards beyond the main road.

At Rocky Cape port the bedded quartzites strike N.
of E., and the contorted quartz-schists which succeed
them on the west strike N. 80deg. E. At Jacob’s Boat
Harbour the strike is N.W., and the dip towards the
NEES

The southern extension of these rocks is covered by
Tertiary basalt.

V. A narrow belt of Pre-Cambrian rocks has been
observed at the junction of the Whyte and Rocky
Rivers, crossing the Waratah-Corinna road (3). This
road, between points distant from Waratah 19 miles and
3114 miles, traverses the belt referred to diagonally.
However, the observed width of these rocks is only
about four miles.

The Rocky River schists are amphibolites, some-
times compact and granular, sometimes distinctly schis-
tose, flanked on either side by schistose sediments.

(1) Geological Survey of Tasmania, Bulletin No. 5, 19009.

(2) See W. H. Twelvetrees’ “ Report on the North-West
Coast Mineral Deposits,” 1905.

(3) See W. H. Twelvetrees’ “ Report on the Mineral Fields
between Waratah and Corinna,” 1900.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 149

The Long Plain, on the east of the amphibolite, con-
tains quartzitic, sericitic, and graphitic schists. To the
westward the country contains slate and quartz schist,
but no detailed geological examination has yet been
made.

This zone of schists is known to extend in a north-
westerly direction for 10 miles, where it crosses the
Savage River.

The strike of these rocks is N. 1odeg. W., and the
dip to the N.E..

VI. The most northerly of the larger areas covered
by the Pre-Cambrian rocks is that which extends from
the Mackintosh River on the west to the Forth River
on the east, and almost to the Dove River on the north
(1).

The western portion of this area is penetrated by the
granite of Granite Tor (2) and there is a larger area of
Permo-carboniferous sandstone, capped by diabase,
overlying it at Barn Bluff. On the south similar rocks
to these last-mentioned go to build up the Eldon Range,
which separates this area from that which is numbered

VILL.

The rocks are chiefly foliated quartz-schists, with
micaceous and argillaceous schists as well, the strike of
which is a few degrees N. of W. at Barn Bluff.

VII. What is probably a small outlier of the latter
area is situated between the head of the King River and
the North Eldon River, to the east and south-east of
Lake Dora.

VIII. The largest unbroken development is that
which extends southwards from the vicinity of the
Eldon ‘Range throughout the greater part of the basin
of the Franklin River (3). On the north-west it is
bounded by the superincumbent Silurian sediments

(1) See G. A. Waller, “ Report on the Mineral Districts of
Bell Mount, Dove River, Five-mile Rise, Mount Pelion, and
Barn Bluff,” rgotr.

(2) ‘Geological Survey of Tasmania, Bulletin No. 3.

(3) See “ Report of the Department of Lands and Surveys
for 1907-1908.”

150 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

which lie to the north of the Raglan Range. On the
north-east it extends to the edge of the Central Plateau,
where the upper Mesozoic diabase covers it.

The Raglan Range, the Frenchman’s Cap, and De-
ception Range form the observed western borders of
this area. On the eastward the lower slopes of Mount
Gell, Mount Arrowsmith, and the western slopes of the
Loddon Range form the limits of these schists. A con-
siderable area of Cambrian rocks has been seen to over-
lie the Pre-Cambrian to the east of the Frenchman’s
Cap. And Ordovician limestone has been located in the
beds of the Denison and Jane Rivers. (It has been
found impossible to represent the Jane River limestone
on the map, for the reasons that the outcrop is abso-
lutely restricted to the river bed, and the scale of the
map will not admit of the representation of such a
narrow band.)

The eastern boundary of the Pre-Cambrian lies to
the west of the Denison Range, and crosses the Gordon
River near the junction of the latter with the Wedge
River. Thence it has been observed to run southwards
a little to the east of Lake Pedder. Beyond this point
it has not been followed, but it is thought to continue
to the south coast near the New River.

This southern extension of the Pre-Cambrian em-
braces the Frankland Range, and probably the country
between that range and Port Davey.

All varieties of quartzites, quartzite-schists, mica-
ceous, argillaceous, and graphitic schists are found
within the limits of this area. The probable existence
of an upper horizon of quartzite-schist has been indi-
cated above.

To the west of the Denison Range the strike is
usually north-easterly. South of the Gordon River the
strike varies between N. 5deg. and N. 30deg. W.

IX. The most southerly development is that which
extends from a point to the westward of New River
along the south-western coast beyond Port Davey. This
area is pierced by a small intrusion of granite at Cox’s

Bight (1).

(1) See W. H. Twelvetrees’ “ Report on Cox’s Bight Tin
Field,” 1906.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. TS

The northern and north-western limits have not yet
been determined. The area is probably continuous with
that which has last been described (VIII).

There are quartzites interbedded with argillaceous
schists at Cox’s Bight. These have a strike between
N.N.W. and N.W., and dip to the south-west at low

angles.

Of Port Davey there is but little known, save that
the white quartzites of the port extend northwards
along the coast for some distance.

VIII—NOMENCLATURE AND: CORRELATION.

It is impossible to discuss the nomenclature of these
rocks without at the same time briefly discussing the
relationship which they bear to rocks of like age in
extra-Australian areas.

In assigning an age to the strata which have been
deposited since the beginning of the Cambrian era, the
evidence of the fossils preserved in the rocks is the most
important. But with regard to the Pre-Cambrian no
such criteria are available.

It is true that there are well-authenticated cases of
the existence of organic remains in beds which are
stratigraphically lower than those containing the typical
lower Cambrian fauna; and it is also true that the
diversity of the Cambrian fauna presupposes a Pre-
Cambrian fauna. But all organic remains are ill-pre-
served in the Pre-Cambrian rocks, while in Tasmania
no such remains have yet been detected. u

On stratigraphical evidence we have come to the
conclusion that the Tasmanian rocks here discussed are
truly Pre-Cambrian. But the word “ Pre-Cambrian ”
cannot but be regarded as merely a temporary epithet,
to be replaced by one which will define the age more
exactly when our knowledge of these rocks has become
sufficiently advanced to ustify a refinement in classifica-
tion.

For the word ‘“ Pre-Cambrian,’ used in its literal
sense to designate those rocks which are of greater an-
tiquity than the Cambrian, embraces several rock-

152 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

groupings now fully recognised in the regions in which
they are represented. It has been estimated that these
groupings of the Pre-Cambrian are comparable in im-
portance to the systems (Cambrian, Ordovician, Silu-
Tian, etc.) into which the Palaeozoic has been divided.

Hence Messrs. T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury
have in their Geology (1) divided the Pre-Cambrian
rocks into two main groups of systems—the Proterozoic
and the Archaeozoic—which rank more nearly with the
main subdivisions of the upper portion of the Geological
Record, viz., Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic.

By these authors the Proterozoic and Archaeozoic
are again divided in the manner indicated in the table
of classification which has been prepared to show the
various systems of nomenclature.

The Pre-Cambrian succession in North America has
been specially studied by a committee appointed by the
Geological Surveys of the United States and Canada,
and the classification adopted by the members of this
committee (2) is given in the accompanying comparative
table.

It will be seen that the succession stated by this com-
mittee, to be applicable to the North American areas,
differs from that of Messrs. Chamberlin and Salisbury.
The chief difference lies in the transposition of the two
lowest groups. Messrs. Chamberlin and Salisbury
agree with other American geologists in placing the
Laurentian above the great schist series (which includes
the Keewatin), for the reason that in many cases the
granites and gneisses of the Laurentian occur as intru-
sions into the schist series. However, this question has
no direct bearing on the Tasmanian developments, and
will not be further discussed.

On the whole, therefore, it will be conceded that a
definite succession of groups has been established for
the North American region.

There are, however, differences of opinion as to how
these Pre-Cambrian series may best be included in
major groupings.

(el ocmciie. Vol wll apilsor

(2) Ibidem, Vol. II., p. 161. Also Journal of Geology, Vol.
XIII., No. 2, 1905, pp. 89-104.

BY L. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. 153

There are, according to C. R. Van Hise, two main
‘divisions of the Pre-Cambrian which are to be recog-
-nised in all parts of the world where rocks of this age
are found (1). This twofold division is based upon the
essential differences in the lithological character of the
upper and lower members of the Pre-Cambrian.

The term Archaean is now restricted to that portion,

of dominantly igneous origin, which constitutes the

‘basal complex. It corresponds to the “ Archaeozoic ”’ of
Messrs. Chamberlin and Salisbury.

On the other hand, the term “ Algonkian”’ is applied
to those rocks the origin of which is, in the main,
-aqueous (2). Igneous rocks are associated with these,
but are subordinate in amount. The term Algonkian
‘corresponds to the “‘ Proterozoic ” of Messrs. Chamber-
lin and Salisbury.

This subdivision of the Pre-Cambrian into these two
groups has not, however, met with universal acceptance.

In the light of the more recent researches in the
North American region, doubt has arisen in the minds
-of the Canadian geologists as to the value of lithological
-character alone as the basis of correlation.

Professor F. D. Adams, in a recent paper (3), sug-
_gests the use of epochs of diastrophism in the compara-
tive study of the Pre-Cambrian rocks of North America
and Asia, with a view to correlation.

In this paper Professor Adams shows that there are
“three major periods in the Pre-Cambrian history of
Laurentia, separated by two critical periods of diastro-
phism” (4). Of these breaks, the lower coincides with
that which separates the Algonkian from the Archaean ;
while the upper break divides the Middle Huronian from
the Upper Huronian (Animikean).

(1) United States Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 86. Also
Journal of Geology, Vol. XVII., No. 2, 1909, pp. 97-104, 118-
122.

(2) It is interesting to note that the late M. A. de Lap-
parent brought this upper division into his Palaeozoic group,
calling it the Pre-Cambrian system. Below the Palaeozoic

_group he places the Archaean group. Traité de Géologie, 1906, .
Vol. II., pp. 723, 752-765.

(3) Journal of Geology, Vol. XVII., No. 2, 1909, pp. 105-
118, 122-123.

(@) Wacs cit..p, 05.

7 :
154. THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

The same author has drawn attention to the exist-
ence of similar epochs of diastrophism in Asia, and cor-
relates the Asiatic succession with that of North America
by a time relation to these diastrophic epochs.

With the question of the North American-Asiatic
correlation we are not here concerned; but we are
bound to consider most carefully Professor Adams’
contention that the Pre-Cambrian group should be
divided into three systems rather than two. For Pro-
fessor Adams insists that the upper break—called by
Professor Lawson the “eparchaean interval ”—is “ one
of the greatest unconformities in the whole of the Pre-
Cambrian succession of Laurentia, and probably quite
as important, if not more so, than the break at the close
of the Keewatin ” (1).

As regards the Tasmanian Pre-Cambrian terrain,
any attempt to apply in detail the conclusions arrived at
by American geologists is not yet warranted.

While close correlation cannot be attempted, some
account should be given of the more general relation-
ships of the Tasmanian occurrences.

We know that the Pre-Cambrian rocks of Tasmania
are typically such as would be designated Algonkian by
Van Hise. Moreover, the writer holds the opinion that
there is, at least in the district surrounding the head of
the Jane River, a twofold division of these rocks, and
that the two groups are separated by an unconformity.
But much detailed field work must yet be done before
any sound deductions can be drawn from the existence-
of this unconformity. Exact correlation with the rocks
of distant geological provinces is quite impossible.

Moreover, it must be borne in mind that one uncon-
formity only has yet been observed in the Tasmanian
Pre-Cambrian development. In the North American
succession three unconformities above the Lower
Huronian series (2) are recognised by the members of
the classification committee, although there is a want of
agreement in the matter of the importance that should
be attached to ‘the different unconformities. On this.
‘ question the special committee expressed no opinion.

Ge Bocwcity spyi22:
(2) See comparative table at the end of this paper.

BY LL. KEITH WARD, B.A., B.E. I55

Supposing for the moment that the Tasmanian un-
conformity should correspond exactly to one of those
recognised in the North American region, we do not
know which of these it might be, nor whether it is a
major or minor one.

Nevertheless, in the future attempts to unravel the
Pre-Cambrian history of Tasmania, the observations of
North American geologists must be kept constantly in
view.

It may be possible to effect some compromise be-
tween the schemes of nomenclature proposed by Van
Hise and Adams, which are shown side by side in the
accompanying table. The use of terms with a “zoic”
termination appears to the writer to involve the assump-
tion of a greater knowledge of Pre-Cambrian life than
that which we really possess. And, on the other hand,
the term Algonkian is rapidly gaining acceptance in
countries outside of America. Perhaps the modifications,
Analgonkian and Katalgonkian may serve to distinguish
the two major groupings of those Pre-Cambrian rocks
which post-date the Archaean.

It has been found impossible to correlate the Pre-
Cambrian rocks of Tasmania with those of Australia
- from a lack of familiarity with the extra-Tasmanian de-
velopments.

In the latest volume of the Official Year Book of
the Commonwealth of Australia (1), condensed sum-
maries are given of the geology of the various States.
From a perusal of these it will be seen that rocks of
Algonkian type are developed in Victoria, South Aus-
tralia, Western Australia, and in the Broken Hill area
of New South Wales.

(1) Op. cit., No. 2, 1909, pp. 78-111.

T 56 THE GEOLOGY OF TASMANIA—THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

APPENDIX.

NOTES IN EXPEANATION OF THE PLATES.

I. Map of the distribution of the Pre-Cambrian rocks in
Tasmania.

The boundaries of the Pre-Cambrian areas are drawn where
they have been determined.

Where no boundary line is drawn round the hatched areas
it is implied that further investigations may reveal a more ex-
tended distribution of these rocks in those directions not
limited by observed boundaries.

II. The generalised sections are not drawn to scale. They
are intended to represent only the relationships between
the several formations represented.

While they are to be regarded as diagrams only, the dips
‘of the various beds are represented as accurately as is possible

by the inclination of the lines which serve to indicate, in a
general way, the bedding planes.

Section I. represents a length of about five miles.
Section II. represents a length of about one mile.
Section III. represents a length of about five miles.

Section IV. rep. ‘€ ts a length of about four miles.

|
of

D. Adams.

Keeweenawan-Athabasca

Upper Huronian or
.Animikie-Nastapoka

Middle Huronian

}

| Lower Huronian

Keewatin
ac | Intrusive Contact
ee

formities.

THE PRE-CAMBRIAN SUCCESSION IN NORTH AMERICA.

Classification Committee of the

Geological Surveys of the U.S.A. T. C. Chamberlin and R. D, Salisbury. C. R. Van Hise. F. D, Adams,
and Canada. :
Keeweenawan (Nipigon) Keeweenawan Keeweenawan eee ee
EE ST |

Upper Huronian or

Upper (Animikie) | PROTEROZOIC < Animikean Animikie-Nastapoka

Upper Huronian

re
se
Baro ian Middle LeDAETENC A! Middle Huronian Middle Huronian

MESOPROPEROZIR Uw ————~E

Lower Lower Huronian aa Huronian

Keewatin

Great Granitoid Keewatin Keewatin
Series ; j ;
Eruplive Contact ARCH-EOZOIC ARCHBAN... ...4 Eruplive Contact| EO-PROTEROZOIC ~ ae Intrusive Contact
(Archean : ih
Great Schist -
Laurentian Complex)

=
Series Laurentian \

SCALE OF MILES
4 S$ 10 18 20 25 30

TAS

BREGAMB RUAN fea eee

ly che

PL VIN

Roy. Soc TAsm., 1909.

ORDOVICIAN
PARTLY COVERED BY
PLEISTOCENE TO RECENT

fa}
wd
Zz
é
uw
re,
Bai
(e)
Z
=)

CAMBRIAN

PRE-C AMBRIAN

VAMBRIAN

PRE-CAMBRIAN

—A_

FOOTHILLS OF THES

<
o

FRENCHMAN'S CAPX 3

NORTH STAR

&
OL
a,
es

SOUTH £O00D0N RIVER

ORS
a
eo

CALDER’S PASS

GORDON AIVER

NORTH STAR

TERTIARY

TO
RECENT

GARBONIFEROUS

ORDOVICIAN

CAMBRIAN

INT RUSION

DEVONIAN

PRE-CAMBRIAN

MOUNT VULCAN

VER TAMA

ANOERSON'S

RIVER TAMAR

ASBESTOS RANGE

PRE-CAMBRIAN

RECENT

PLEISTOCENE TO

“CAMBRIAN

MOUNT FARREL

by
y
<5,¥

Ay,

PLEIST OCENE

RECENT

CAMBRIAN

BIVER VALLEY

MACKINTOSH

Nea Ss Se Sees
N Ss

SESS

NOTES ON CHET GEACrA BEDS ORE kis
STONE-BLUFF (SANDY COVE) NEAR WYN-
NARI aie (PIE Ie oe XC Xeni)

By Fritz Norauine, WML Ay ere) Em c

(Read October 18th, 1909.)

(1) HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

The first description of the geological features of the
coast near Wynyard was given forty years ago by Mr.
T. Stephens (1) in a paper read before this Society. In
this paper Mr. Stephens drew special attention to the
conglomerates at the mouth of the Inglis, and, after
mentioning the occurrence of large angular blocks of
granite and porphyry, he goes on to say—* These mas-
sive blocks of granite and other rocks which are not
now found in situ within several miles of their present .
position, I consider to furnish more conclusive evidence
of glacial agency in the geological history of Tasmania
than I have met with elsewhere. (AS tos thease
of this conglomerate, Mr. Stephens says :—* It under-.
lies unconformably the tertiary freestone, which has
been determined by Professor M'Coy to be of miocene
age, and it contains boulders derived from rocks which
are certainly not older than the lower carboniferous’ or
Devonian period.”

‘Mr. Stephens was therefore the first to recognise
the glacial origin of the “ conglomerate’ near Wynyard,
and, though he does not exactly say so, the inference
from the above passages is that he considers these beds _
to be of carboniferous age. Mr. Stephens, though per-.
haps not the first who advocated a palaeozoic glacial
period, was certainly among the first who did so, and,
what is more, he was the first who recognised .the
palaeozoic glacial period in Tasmania. Hey:

(1) Remarks on the: Geological Structure of Part of North. .
Coast of Tasmania, with special refétence to the Tertiary Marine
Beds near Table Cape. Proceed. Roy. Soc. Tas., 18609, pay. 17.

158 NOTES ON THE GLACIAL BEDS NEAR WYNYARD.

Twenty years later Mr. R. M. Johnston published
his Geology of Tasmania. On page 258 of the standard
work on Tasmanian ‘Geology, Mr. Johnston gives the
following section of the bluff near Sandy Cove, in de-
scending order—

4. Basalt, of palaeogene age. )

3. Turritella—group. Eocene.
2. Crassatella—bed. j
1. Conglomerate and shale. — Silurian.

. Johnston is of the opinion that the basalt con-
aie and shale are of silurian age, and that the
Turritella group, as well as the Crassatella bed, belong
to the Eocene. The age of the basalt is not exactly
stated, though it is included in the palaeogene epoch.
(See also: R. M. Johnstone, Further Notes on the Ter-
tiary Marine Beds of Table Cape, Pap. and Proceed.
Roy. Soc. Tas., 1876, pag. 79; a very instructive though
somewhat diagramatic section of Freestone Bluff ac-
companies this paper.)

Montgomery (1) visited this part of Tasmania about
seven years later, and he dwells on the peculiar features
of the conglomerate, which he terms ‘‘ Wynyard forma-
tion.” He thinks that it forms the base of the permo-
carboniferous series, and he agrees with Stephens as to
the glacial origin. Waller (2), who writes a few years
later, fully corroborates Stephens and Montgomery’s
views.

In 1902 Kitson (3) publishes an exhaustive paper on
the glacial beds near Wynyard. If I am not very much
mistaken he was the first to recognise that numerous
boulders were scratched. Kitson mentions quite a
number of different rocks he found in the glacial drift,
and from his list it is evident that rocks of the crys-

(1) Report on the Mineral Fields of the Gawler River, Pen-
guin, Dial Range, Mount Housetop, Table Cape, Cam River,
and portion of the Arthur River districts. Rep. of the Sec. of
Mines, Tasmania, 1895-96.

(2) Report on the Recent Discovery of Cannel Coal in the
Parish of Preolenna, and upon the New Victory Copper Mine,
near the Arthur River. Rep. of the Sec. of Mines, Tasmania,
IQOI-02, pag. 77 it.

(3) On the Occurrence of Glacial Beds at Wynyard, near
Table Cape, Tasmania. Proceed. Roy. Soc. of Victoria, Vol.
XV. (New Series), Part I., 1902 vag. 28.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D., ETC. 159

talline series preponderate. He also mentions a boulder
containing silurian fossils, which had been found by Mr.
Stephens, the fossils being described by R. Etheridge,
jun. (1). Kitson concludes his paper with the remark
that the glacial origin of these beds is beyond doubt.
He is, however, less certain as to its age, but it is evi-
dent that he accepts Montgomery’s view, viz., that these
beds form the base of the permo-carboniferous series.

The last who dealt with these glacial beds is Mr.
Stephens, who published forty years after the appear-
ance of his first paper another one dealing with the
geological features of the North-West Coast (2), in
which he still more emphasises the views expressed in
his first paper.

In company with Mr. Stephens I visited Wynyard
in February, 1908, and during my examination of the
strata at Sandy Cove Bluff I made an observation, which
may be of far-reaching consequence not only for the in-
terpretation of this outcrop, but for the geology of Tas-
mania on the whole. I intended to visit Wynyard again
before publishing my notes, but as it is not very prob-
able that I shall find time during the coming summer,
and as others may visit Sandy Cove Bluff in the mean-
time, I wish to draw the attention to the peculiar
features I observed, with a view to have them either
confirmed or refuted. Before discussing this particular
point, I will briefly describe the sequence of beds.

2. THE SEQUENCE OF BEDS AT FREESTONE
BLUFF (SANDY COVE). (PL. IX.)

In descending order we see—
(c) Basalt.
(b) Sandstone with fossils.
(a) Clay with scratched boulders.

(1) Description of Remains of Trilobites from the Lower
Silurian Rocks of the Mersey River, and Brachiopoda from the
Conglomerate of Table Cape. Pap. and Proceed. Roy. Soc.,
Tasmania, 1882, pag. 158.

(2) Notes on the Geology of the North-West Coast of Tas-
mania from the River Tamar to Circular Head. Proceed.
Linnean Soc., New South Wales, 1908, Vol. XXXIII., pl. 4,
pag. 752 ft.

160 NOTES ON THE GLACIAL BEDS NEAR WYNYARD.

These three divisions represent the primary natural’
subdivision of the series exposed at Freestone Bluff’
(Sandy Cove), and I think that there cannot be the
slightest doubt about this. Difference of opinion enters
only when we discuss the age and the relations of these
three divisions, but before touching this intricate point
it will be well to describe shortly their main features :—

(a) Clay with scratched boulders. (Glacial drift or
Wynyard formation.)

The glacial drift is well exposed along the outlet of

the Inglis, and thence it can be followed in western
direction past Freestone Bluff along the shore almost-
as far as Table Cape, where it disappears underneath
‘the overlying sandstone. In eastern direction it can be
followed close up’to Woody Hill Point; the total length
of exposure along the coast being about six miles (1).
From Freestone Bluff towards Table Cape there is a de-
cided dip towardé'Wwest, but this dip does apparently not
continue across the Inglis river, because if it did the
glacial drift ought to be at a much higher level near
Woody Hill Point than it is. Here it appears at sea
level exactly as at Freestone Bluff, and we must there-
fore assume that the eastern portion from Woody Hill
to Freestone Bluff is fairly level, and that the dip com-
mences only west of the last-named point. It is prtety
certain that it extends for a considerable distance in
northern direction, because at low tide the boulders can
be traced far to the north.

How far towards north the moraine extends is diffi-
cult to say, but I feel inclined to think that it extends
at least as far as the 20-fathom line, about 10 miles from
the shore.

At Freestone Bluff at least 20 to 25 feet of thick-
ness are exposed, but for the present it is impossible to
state the entire thickness, which must be considerably
more.

We do not know the strata on which the moraine
rests, but there is every reason to assume that it rests
on schists of pre-cambrian age, which form the larger-
portion of the North-West Coast.

(1) See also Stephens’ Notes on the Geology of the North-
West Coast, etc. Lin. Soc., New South Wales, 1908, Vol.-
eX ies palen 752:

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D., ETC. 161

The character of this boulder clay is that of the
glacial drift, so well known in Northern Europe and
Northern America (see Pl. X. and XI.). More or less.
rounded sub-angular blocks of rocks, many of which are
striated, are irregularly embedded in an argillaceous
matrix. This feature is particularly well seen from
Freestone Bluff towards the Inglis River, but on turn-
ing round the corner of the bluff it loses its character
as a boulder clay; the boulders are alr~ust absent, and,
what is more, the clay becomes stratified, strangely con-
trasting in appearance with its former characteristic de-
velopment. The boulders appear age 1 further towards
west, and this certainly proves that the character of the
moraine locally changes considerably. Further investi-
gations of this point are very desirable.

Unfortunately my time was too short to make a com-
plete collection of the different kinds of rocks occurring,
but I noticed that crystalline rocks form far the ma-
jority. Sedimentary rocks are very scarce; I found a
boulder of greyish limestone without fossils, and though
I searched very carefully I did not find any trace of
permian fossiliferous rocks. On this point apparently all
observers agree; neither Mr. Stephens, nor Mr. Kitson,
nor myself found boulders of rocks of permian age.
Kitson enumerates quite a number of different kinds of
rocks, and I have no doubt that if a systematic collec-
tion is made, and the rocks correctly determined, we
will be able with great certainty to fix the geological
features of the country whence they came, and thus
probably locate their origin.

Most of these boulders are strongly striated and
scratched. On the whole these ice-worn boulders are
not very common, but I succeeded in finding two perfect
specimens of considerable size.

There is another feature connected with these
boulders which, 1f | am not mistaken, was first noticed
by Kitson. Almost all the boulders are intersected by
a number of parallel cracks running approximately
north-south. These cracks are indicative of a great
lateral pressure, which did not affect the softer matrix,
but broke the more rigid boulders (Pl. XII.). It is very.
probable that these cracks or joints indicating a pres-
sure from north are the result of the subsidence of the
earth’s surface when Bass Straits was formed.

162 NOTES ON THE GLACIAL BEDS NEAR WYNYARD.

At several places I noticed towards the top of the
glacial drift lenticular masses of hard quartzite sand-
stone. Mr. Kitson is inclined to consider these as trans-
ported blocks. I rather think them to be solidified
aranaceous concretions, which were eventually sub-
jected to the same process of pressure as the boulders
(Plate X.).

I am, further, not quite certain whether the apparent
stratified condition of the moraine may not also be due
to pressure. However that may be, it is certain that the
moraine was subjected to an enormous pressure.

(b) Sandstone with Fossils.

Immediately above the moraine follows a layer of
coarse conglomerate, which was unquestionably derived
from working up the top part of the moraine and re-
<leposit of the more larger blocks. These boulders are
cemented by a sandy matrix containing numerous frag-
ments of shells, sometimes also a more complete speci-
men. About 2 feet above this occurs a very constant
bed of fossils about 14 to 1 foot in thickness (Pl. X. and
X1.), which has been called Crassatella-bed by Mr. John-
ston. This Crassatella-bed is rather peculiar; though
very constant in level and thickness, it is not separated
by planes of bedding from either the lower or upper
portions of the sandstone. It looks as if the fossils had
been more concentrated at a certain time during the
deposit of the sandstone than either before or aiter-
wards. When we closely examine the fossils we see
that they consist for the greater part of broken and
rolled fragments, while complete specimens are not very
common. It is obvious that the Crassatella~-bed forms
an old sea beach—in fact, there 1s not the slightest dif-
ference between it and a modern beach along our
coasts. Mixed with the fossils, and immediately above
the bed, there are numerous rolled small pebbles of
whitish or yellowish quartzite, such as I have seen in
the tin-bearing deposits on the North-East Coast (1).

Above the Crassatella-bed follows a series of about
80 feet of thickly bedded sandstone, of yellowish white

(1) This is one of the observations hitherto apparently un-
noticed,

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D., ETC. 163

colour. This sandstone is rather calcareous, and pretty
hard. The most common fossil is a small Curritella,
which has been called T. Warbartonii, and from which
the whole series has appropriately been called Turritella
sandstone. The fossils, which are exactly the same as
those occurring in the Crassatella-bed, are more sparsely
distributed, but now and then they occur in heaps, just
as we find them along our shores at the present day.

Besides these marine fossils leaves of terrestrial
plants in particular Sapotacites oligoneuris, Etting. and
others were found (i), but the most interesting is a
nearly complete skeleton of the marsupial Wynyardia
bassiana Spencer (2). It may perhaps seem somewhat
surprising to find the remains of terrestrial plants and
animals in marine deposits, but a little consideration will
show that this is not surprising at all. In fact, it would
be more surprising if these remains had not been found.
The Turritella-sandstone represents a typical deposit
formed along the beach, where the land was not far
away; leaves from the trees growing close by were fre-
quently blown into the water, and the strand was
also frequently visited by animals (3), whose remains
became now and then embedded in the sandstone.

The Turritella-sandstone dips slightly towards west,
and the higher beds, which are inaccessible at Freestone
Bluff, descend more and more towards the sea level the
further we move towards west.

I am unable to say whether a subdivision of the
Turritella-sandstone is possible or not. If we distinguish
the Crassatella-bed as a special palaeontological horizon, :
we must of course distinguish the strata above and
below it. It will perhaps be possible to establish a cer-
tain subdivision, particularly if it could be proved that
the terrestrial remains occur only in the upper portions,
but a good deal of work remains still to be done before
we can say something definite.

(1) Pap. and Proceed. Royal Soc. Tasmania, 1886, pag. xx.

(2) Proceed. Zoolog. Soc., London, 1900, pag. 776-795.

(3) At the mouth of the Ringarooma River I noticed nume-
rous tracks of the native cat (Dasyurus viverrinus) among the

sand dunes and along the beach, showing that this animal is in
the habit of frequenting the sea shore.

164 NOTES ON THE GLACIAL BEDS NEAR WYNYARD.

The last of the series is a cap of basalt, having a.
thickness of about 80 feet. Mr. Johnston is of the
opinion that this basalt is of very recent age (1). I am
unable to say anything with regard to the relations of
the Sandy Cove basalt and the Trachy-dolerite of Table
Cape. Mr. Stephens thinks that the Turritella-sandstone
was deposited against the Trachy-dolerite of Table Cape.
This would imply that the Table Cape rock is much
older than the Turritella-sandstone—in fact, that Table
Cape already formed a promontory as to-day at the time
when the Turritella-sandstone was deposited. I do not
agree with Mr. Stephens on this point, because if this
were so the beds ought to dip away from Table Cape,
but not towards it; besides, I think that the Turritella
sandstone 1s somewhat altered nearing Table Cape. I
think that there is not much reason to assume that the
Sandy Cove basalt and that of Table Cape are of such
widely different age as they would be if Mr. Stephens”
view were correct.

The actual observations of the strata as exposed near
Wynyard can therefore be summarised as follows :—

“ There exists a fairly thick glacial drift unconform-.
ably overlaid by an arenaceous littoral formation with
fossils capped by basalt.”

The question now arises, what is the age of these
deposits? Before discussing this problem, I wish to
mention another observation | made, which, though of
the greatest importance, has apparently never been
-noticed by previous observers. When I examined the
top part of the glacial drift, with a view to ascertain the
relations between it and the Turritella-sandstone, I
noticed small lenticular layers of fossiliferous sandstone,
each showing the small quartz pebbles embedded in the
boulder clay, and later on I found rather a long layer
of this sand (Pl. XI. and XII.). There is no question
that these fossiliferous layers, undistinguishable from
the standstone above, were embedded in the moraine,
but the problem is to decide whether they are
moraine, but the problem is to decide whether they are
primary deposits contemporaneous with the moraine or

(1) Geology of Tasmania, pag. 259.
y gy 5 pe)

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D., ETC. 165

secondary infiltrations so to speak, which were formed
jong after the deposit of the moraine. It will be seen
that it is of the utmost importance with regard to the
age of the moraine as well as the Turitella-sandstone to
decide this question one way or another.

(3) AGE OF THE BEDS AT FREESTONE BLUFF
(SANDY COVE). |

Montgomery, Waller, and Kitson believe that the
glacial drift belongs to the palaeozoic area, and forms
part of the permo-carboniferous, or, as we would say,
permian formation, whose lowest or basal bed it repre-
Sen pS:

Above the palaeozoic moraine rests a fossiliferous
sandstone supposed to be of eocene age (1). I have
never been able to find out on what palaeontological
proofs the view of the eocene age of the Turritella-sand-
stone has been based. If the list of fossils described
from this formation is carefully studied (2), it will be
seen that practically all species are new. Not one of
them could be identified with species from true eocene
rocks either in Asia or Europe. Further, that charac-
teristic fossil of the eocene, the genus nummulites, is
entirely absent, though in Europe it occurs under the
same latitude in large numbers. I rather feel inclined
to think that the proofs for the eocene age are negative,
and not positive. In the older geological manuals we
iden sig Charles) lyellisiirather fetching | percentage
theory being accepted as an absolute certain guide for
the subdivision of the tertiary formation. This theory
assumes that the percentage of living forms decreases
in descending order; that is to say, there are a smaller
number of living species in the Miocene than in the
Pliocene; and, again, they are far less in the Pliocene
than in the Miocene; and the smallest number of all
occur in the Eocene. More modern investigations have,
however, proved that the percentage theory must be

(1) I may state here that Prof. M‘Coy was originally of the
opinion that these beds are of Miocene age. (See Johnston
Geology of Tasmania.)

(2) Reference List of the Tertiary Fossils of Tasmania. Pap.
and Proceed. Royal Soc. of Tasmania, 1886, pag. 124 ft. (See
also Johnston Geology of Tasmania.)

166 NOTES ON THE GLACIAL BEDS NEAR WYNYARD.

used with the greatest discretion only, and unless sup-
ported by other evidence it is at times completely mis-
leading.

This certainly applies to the fauna from the Wynyard
sandstone. There is not the slightest reason to assume
that it would be of Eocene age because none of the
species could be identified with specimens living nowa-
days. The fauna of Bass Strait is a very modern one;
it can have only migrated to its present habitat after the
formation of Bass Strait, and it is a priori very probable
that it has very little in common with the much older
fauna from the Turritella-sandstone.

But let us assume for the sake of argument that the
Turritella-sandstone is of Eocene age. The inclusions
of fossiliferous sand in the upper part of the moraine
seem to indicate a close connection between the glacial
drift and the overlying fossiliferous sandstone. This
being so, we have established the existence of a Tertiary,
that is to say Eocene glacial period. Now, however, dif-
ferent the opinions of geologists may be, there is not
one dissenting voice with regard to the climate of the
tertiary period. They all agree that the Tertiary was a
period of warmth, but not of cold. The establishment
of a tertiary glacial period in Australasia would be se
much in opposition to all accepted views that it required
much better and stronger proofs than we have now
before we could accept this theory.

Now, let us presume that the moraine is of palaeo-
zoic—that is to say, of Permian age. In that case, the
fauna of the Turritella-zone would also be of permian
age, a theory whose absurdity must even strike a
beginner in palaeontology. Whatever the age of the
Turritella-sandstone may be, its fauna is of such a
modern habitus that anything else but a tertiary or post
tertiary age is out of question.

It is therefore certain that neither the eocene age
of the Turritella-sandstone nor the palaeozoic age of the
glacial drift satisfactorily accounts for the intimate rela-
tionship between the two as indicated by the fossiliferous
inlayers. This could only be explained if we were to
assume that the moraine is of diluvial age, or, as it is
generally called out here, pleistocene age.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D., ETC. 167

The pleistocene glacier deposited its debris in a sea,
which became later on inhabited with the Turritella
fauna. Gradually the sea encroached on the land, the
upper parts of the moraine were worked up and re-
deposited as a conglomerate bed, while small inlayers
of fossiliferous sand became mixed up with the upper
parts of the moraine.

The Turritella-sandstone would therefore be of post
glacial age, and the basalt would be younger still.

As far as I can see there could be two objections to
this theory, viz., the cracks in the boulders and the sup-
position that the inlayers of fossiliferous sand are
secondary infiltrations.

I have shown above that almost all the boulders are
intersected by a series of parallel fissures. If sandstone
and moraine belonged together, one would assume that
the cracks continued into the sandstone, and that the
larger fossils were broken in a way similar to the
boulders. If my memory does not deceive me, I never
noticed such a feature, though I must confess I did not
pay much attention to it at the time. However that may
be, even if the cracks did not extend to the Turritella
sandstone, we might assume that the subsidence of land
which caused the pressure also opened an inroad for the
sea, in which the younger Turritella sandstone was de-
posited. Though the boulders in the older moraine
were therefore broken, the same pressure did not affect
the younger Turritella-sandstone.

The other objection is the more serious of the two.
In order to make it fully understood, we will accept for
the moment the old theory that the moraine forms the
base of the permian rocks, and that the Turritella-sand-
stone is of tertiary (eocene) age. We would then have
one of the most stupendous discordances known in the
history of the earth. The whole of the mesozoic forma-
tion, viz., triassic, Jurassic, and cretaceous periods, even
a part of the younger palaeozoic (middle and upper
permian) would be missing.

I do not wish to enter into the discussion whether
the strata representing these periods were always miss-
ing or have been removed by subsequent denudation.
All I wish to poifit out, that if the views hitherto held

168 NOTES ON THE GLACIAL BEDS NEAR WYNYARD.

regarding the age of the strata at Freestone Bluff
(Sandy Cove) be correct we have Eocene resting imme-
diately on the basal bed of the Permian.

Now, all throughout Tasmania the permian forma-
tion above the basal glacial drift is represented by a
series of great thickness, consisting of mudstones, lime-
stones, and coal measures, the latter being followed by
‘hose of younger, probably mesozoic age. Now, we
Must either assume that not a foot of this great thick-
ness of strata had been deposited near Wynyard, or
that they all were removed by subsequent denudation.

It is impossible to assume that they were not de-
posited near Wynyard, because if the glacial driit, 1.e.,
the basal moraine, had formed the surface of the earth
ever since the early Permian, it would probably be disin-
tegrated to such an extent that it would be hardly recog-
nisable. We cannot measure yet the absolute time that
lapsed between the beginning of the permian and that
of the tertiary epoch, but whatever it may have been it
must represent an immense period. Is it imaginable
that during this almost immeasurable time the boulder
bed forming the surface all the while became so little
disintegrated that it remained as fresh as it appears to-
day? I think not, and we must therefore assume that
the younger strata, mostly of permian age, were re-
moved by denudation. This at once raises another diffi-
culty—why was the denudation so energetic just near
Wynyard that it removed practically all traces of the
permian beds, and why was it not so eneregtic in other
parts of Tasmania?

Presuming this strange phenomenon did take place;
the younger strata disappeared and the surface of the
glacial drift was laid bare; about that time a great sub-
sidence of land took place to the north of Wynyard; the
pressure thus created broke the boulders and opened
fissures in the moraine which became subsequently filled
up with fossiliferous sand from above. There is no
doubt that this theory is a very fetching one, and it
would be possible to reconcile the palaeozoic age of the
moraine with the kainozoic age of the Turritella-sand-
stone. There is, however, one drawback; so far I have
not seen a single instance where cracks of the kind re-
quired were connected with the Turritella~-sandstone.

Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1909. PL. IX.

FREHSTONE BLUFF, NEAR WYNYARD (TABLE CAPE IN THE BACKGROUND)

Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1909.

LENTICULAR MASS OF SANDSTONE IN THE MORAINE, OVERLAID BY THE CRASSATELLA
BED.

ne ee
mac

cheer ed a

Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1909. PES:

GLACIAL MORAINE SHOWING A LAYER OF FOSSILIFEROUS SAND IMBEDDED IN ITS
TOP PORTION.

Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1909. Pies KIMe

THE CENTRAL PORTION OF THE LAST PLATE ENLARGED. THIS SHOWS THE
FOSSILIFEROUS LAYER MORE DISTINCTLY.

BY FRITZ NOETLING, M.A., Ph.D., ETC. 169

‘These cracks should be vertical, or at least nearly so,
such as shown in the boulders. Though I searched
hard, I could not find a single instance. The fossiliferous
inlayers in the moraine were all more or less horizontal
and disconnected with the Turritella-sandstone. Further
examinations would be required to prove conclusively
that the fossiliferous inlayers are later infiltration, and
not contemporaneous with the moraine. For the present
the evidence goes more in favour of the latter than of
the former view.

The strongest point in favour of a palaeozoic age of
the moraine is the seemingly entire absence of boulders
of younger than permian age. We know for certain that
the moraine must be of post silurian age, because boul-
ders containing silurian fossils have been discovered in
it. The absence of permian boulders does, however, not
necessarily mean that it must be of pre-permian age,
though it is, I admit, a very strong point in favour of
this view. We know, however, so little about the boul-
‘ders contained in the moraine, that we cannot say with
certainty that they do occur; and, further, if they do not
occur, we have always to consider the probability that
the glacial debris was derived from places where there
were no permian strata.

At present the case stands therefore like this: Unless
it be conclusively and without the slightest doubt proved
that the fossiliferous inlayers in the glacial drift are sub-
sequent infiltrations, we must assume that the moraine
-and the Turritella-sandstone belong to one and the same
epoch. As no sane geologist would consider the fauna
of the Turritella-bed to be of palaeozoic age, and as the
assumption of an eocene glacial period would be con-
trary to all experience, we must assume that both the
moraine and the Turritella-sandstone are of diluvial
(pleistocene) and post diluvial age.

GEOLOGICAL NOTES {ON (aE: (C@WINGRA,
TRAVERSED BY TD HE DERWENT Veneer:
RAILWAY EXTENSION.

(Gelb aCe, SIUC)
By T. SterHens, M.A., F.G.S.

(Read November 8, 1909.)

The great basaltic sheet, once continuous from Mac-
quarie Plains to Glenora, ends somewhat abruptly om
the Northern slope of the valley of the River Styx.
Whether it originally extended farther is uncertain, but
the probability is that its advance was barred by thick-
bedded tertiary sands and clays corresponding to those
exposed in the bed of the Derwent near Macquarie
Plains, and covered in pre-basaltic times by a great ac-
cumulation of drift gravels, the greater part of the whole
formation being subsequently removed by denudation.
Half a mile from the Glenora station the new line passes
through solid basalt, the continuity of which is broken
by an irregular band, the determination of the character
of which will require a more careful examination than
is practicable on a flying visit. It is loosely compacted.
and some of it has the appearance of volcanic tuff. But
the interesting feature is that, scattered through the
formation are crystalline patches of opal varying in
colour from pure white to dark brown. There are also
faint but unmistakable traces of fossil wood. It was
from this same sheet of basalt that the fossil tree was
unearthed near Macquarie Plains, which was described’
by Sir Joseph Hooker some seventy years ago, and is
now a conspicuous object in the Natural History branch
of the British Museum. It has been identified by Mr.
Newell Arber as a species of Cupressinoxylon*.

*Cupressinoxylon Hookeri, sp. nov., a silicified tree fromi
Tasmania. By E. A. Newell Arber, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. Geo-
logical Magazine, January, 1904.

T. STEPHENS, M.A., F.G.S. lor

The origin of the specimens of agate, carnelian, and
various forms of chalcedony, which are often found in
eravels of the Derwent basin, or ploughed up in
basaltic soils, has always been something of a mystery,,
but the occurrence of these opals in situ points to our
Tertiary basalt as one of the sources from which they
have been derived.

The basaltic country which has been described abuts
against a rather lofty rise of deep bedded gravels with
quartzite boulders up to about eight or ten inches in
diameter. The summit of the hill is, by aneroid, about
440 feet above sea level. These gravel beds show no.
sien of local glaciation, but may be moraine matter
brought down in post-g glacial erosion. Before any de-
finite conclusion can be formed respecting the history
of these gravels and boulders, it will be necessary to
investigate the history of similar deposits in other parts
of the Derwent basin. On the slopes of the eroded
sandstones between Glenora and Hamilton, some 200:
feet above the present river level, are lines of travelled
shingle and waterworn boulders, and a similar deposit
lies high up on the ridge between Hamilton and Upper
Broadmarsh. These may be regarded as the remains
of terraces on the margin of ancient lakes long since
drained by erosion of the river bed. But it is to be
noted that none of these deposits are of local origin.
All the material consists of quartzites, schists, 'and in-
durated sandstones, which have come from the far dis-
tant Western country, and their distribution is sugges-
tive of some form of glacial transport.

Approaching Fenton Forest the line passes through
a small rise of sand and fine gravel. On the right are
the hop grounds and paddocks occupying what was the
bed of one of the numerous lakes of the Derwent Valley
before the river cut its way through the barrier of basalt
near Macquarie Plains. So far there was. no formidable
obstacle to the construction of the railway; but from
near the Forest gate the cuttings for a distance of nearly
two miles are through massive diabase of an unsually
refractory character. At two and a half miles from
Glenora was the maximum difficulty of the whole line.
The diabase of Eastern Tasmania is notoriously one of
the hardest and toughest of rocks, but here there was

172 GEOLOGICAL NOTES—DERWENT VALLEY COUNTRY.

not only the difficulty of getting in the drills deep
enough for effective blasting, but the rock is so unusu-
ally hard and splintery that there was no avoidance of
serious damage to face and hands in the subsequent
breaking up with the hammer. The depth of the cutting
at this point is about 14 feet. The diabase is rudely
columnar, and resting upon it is a band of altered sand-
stone (Plate XIII.), the section showing more conclusive
evidence of the presence of an intrusive sill than I have
seen elsewhere inland, though similar sections are com-
mon enough on the shores of Tasman’s Peninsula, Bruni
Island, and the Channel. Towards the western end of
this cutting the sandstone is much dislocated by the
lifting agency of the intrusive rock. About half a mile
farther on is a long cutting through altered mudstone,
the diabase only showing here and there. The general
dip is about E.S.E., and in this direction it will pass
under a neighbouring lofty hill of sandstone, which is
normally the next member in the ascending series. The
differences in level and the changes in the direction of
dip of the sedimentary rocks along the whole route show
that they have been much disturbed and faulted by the
intrusive diabase, which everywhere underlies them at a
greater or less depth in the form of sills or laccolites.

At 3% miles, at a sharp bend in the Russell Falls
River, is a fine section showing columnar diabase un-
derlying altered and much jointed mudstone.

The diabase shows itself here and there for the next
mile, but is mostly hidden by sand and gravel, and the
waste of the mudstone which is the bed rock of this
part of the district. At 5%4 miles a cutting was taken
through mudstone of normal character, but with a
change of dip to S.W. The next cutting is through
mudstone at first in regular bedding, but towards the
Western end large loose angular blocks of the same rock
were met with, together with rounded boulders of
quartzite and other ancient rocks, and occasionally of
diabase. One weathered block of the last named
measured 3 feet by 2 feet, with a thickness of about 7
inches. The next cutting is through soft sandstone
lying conformably to the mudstone. This is the last
appearance of the sedimentary rocks, and the terminus
of the line stands on sandy clays and gravel thinly
covering massive diabase.

T. STEPHENS, M.A., F.G.S. 173

The character of the country from this point may
be briefly described. To the West and South-West are
lofty ridges of diabase, which is continuous for about
three miles on both sides of the gorge occupied by
Russell Falls River. The first change is shown in out-
crops of thick bedded mudstone and sandstone, and
these are succeeded by Permo-Carboniferous marine
beds brought into view by strong faults. The same
broken and faulted country continues up to the head of
the valley, where these marine beds crop out on the
Southern flanks of Mt. Field at an elevation of over
2,000 feet. To the east at a lower level are great bands.
of Ordovician limestone with a northerly sttike, and to
the west are rugged ridges of quartzite and conglome-
rate, with bands of limestone, and traces of the Cam-
brian sandstone which | have elsewhere mentioned as
occurring at the head of the Florentine Valley. The
discussion of the mutual relations of these rocks is, how-.
ever, outside the limits of this paper. It may, however,
be noted that, as was pointed out in a paper read before:
this Society in 1896,* that the valley of the Russell Falls
River is the first stage of the only practicable route for
communication by road or railway between Hobart and’
the West Coast, whether it be in the near or the far
distant future.

In concluding these somewhat fragmentary notes, it
only remains to consider whether this district supplies
any proof of glaciation in past ages, and it must be ad-
mitted that the evidence is not very clear. The typical
mudstone, which is one of the most widely distributed
of South-Eastern sediments, is an upper member of the
Permo-Carboniferous marine series. It is noticeable for
the number of erratics of large size that are contained in
it, and is almost certainly of glacial origin. The stupen-
dous intrusion of diabase, which now caps all the moun-
tains andymost of thevhillls of Bastern Dasmania nis
mostly stripped of its original covering of sediments,
the remnants of which are seen in isolated patches, or
abutting against the flanks of the mountains, where
they have been protected from erosion by accumula-
tions of talus. It is hard to conceive any agency but

*TLand routes for exploration of the Western Country. By
T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S. Read toth August. 1896.

174 GEOLOGICAL NOTES—DERWENT VALLEY COUNTRY.

that of an ice sheet which could affect such extensive
‘denudation. Its occurrence would probably be towards
the close of that Mesozoic period of which we have so
little accurate knowledge, and there seems to be no
other way of accounting for the rounded character of all
the lower diabase-capped hills, resembling gigantic
roches moutonnées. It has been established that there
was a further glaciation in the Western Country in Ter-
‘tiary or post-Tertiary times, and, assuming that similar
conditions prevailed on the Southern mountain ranges,
one might safely conclude that the main features of this
‘district were roughly shaped by moraine-bearing gla-
ciers descending from the Mt. Field range, the existing
‘configuration of the country being due to post-glacial
erosion under high pluvial conditions. So far there is
little positive evidence in support of this theory beyond
the presence of a few erratics, and the steep slightly
terraced slopes of the Permo-Carboniferous beds where
‘they bound the valleys, a contour widely different irom
that of rocks eroded by running water. In such a dis-
trict as this it is futile to expect to find the evidence of
polished rock surfaces, or striated pebbles and boulders,
for none of the rocks over which the glacier would pass
-are hard enough to offer any resistance with the sole
exception of the diabase, and that would be broken up
vather than smoothed.

Roy. Soc. TAsm., 1909. : PL. WIM

DIABASE, WITH OVERLYING SANDSTONE,

(PLATE XIV,

ARI Sh als, IAB LOSS.

PART Il —_THE MYOLOGY OF THE HIND
LIMB.

T. THomson Friynn, B.Sc.

Lecturer in Biology, University of Tasmania.

(Read November 8, 1909.)

176 ANATOMY OF CERTAIN MEGAPODES.

INTRODUCTORY.

It is unnecessary, I think, to commence a series of
papers on the Anatomy of the Megapodes by an
apology. That such a series should seem to be neces-
sary is, perhaps, to be wondered at, the more so when
the special nature of this remarkable group of birds is
considered. Some work has indeed been done, but in
general it has been directed to special features to be
used for taxonomic purposes. Such notes are, there-
fore, scattered about in numerous papers on the
anatomy of birds, a good many of which, here in Tas-
mania, are quite unavailable to me. When we consider
that even in the matter of the pterylosis of the group
probably the only complete account of any member is.
contained in two papers—one by Garrod, on the ana-
tomy of “ Megacephalon maleo,” the other by Pycraft,
on the pterylosis of “ Megapodius pritchardi,’” we get
some idea of the necessity of a systematic investigation
of the group.

My material consists of a number of specimens of
two genera, ~ Catheturus lathami” (the ~ Scrub.
Turkey ”’) and “ Lipoa ocellata’”’ (the “ Mallee Fowl ”’).

In the case of the latter I have not as much material
as could be desired, but any new facts noted with the
arrival of further specimens will be embodied in later
papers. In addition, I have a chick (12 days hatched)
of ““ Megapodius eremita,’ on the pterylosis of which I
make some notes, but which I have not dissected.

I have to tender my sincerest thanks to Prof. W. A.
Haswell, of Sydney, without whose kindly advice and
assistance in obtaining literature this work could not
have been undertaken.

The specimens were all obtained through the assist-
ance of the fund of the John Coutts Scholarship, of
Sydney University, of which for one year I was the
holder. A single exception is the young specimen of
‘Megapodius eremita,” obtained through the help of F.
Young, Esq., of the s.s. “ Upolu,” who brought it from
the Solomon Islands, preserved in diluted gin. I am
deeply indebted to him for the opportunity of examining
this valuable specimen.

BY T. THOMSON FLYNN, B.Sc. 177

PART I.—PTERYLOSIS.

The feather arrangement of the group seems, singu-
larly enough, to have been almost neglected, the only
papers available to me on the subject being those of
Nitszch (Proc. Ray Soc., 1867), containing a brief ac-
count of the pterylosis of “ Megapodius rubripes ”’;
Garrod (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1878, pp. 629-631) on the
anatomy of “ Megacephalon maleo,’ and Pycraft (Wil-
ley’s Zool. Res., Pt. IV., 1900, pp. 483-491) being “A
Contribution towards our Knowledge of the Pterylo-
graphy of the “Megapodii’ ”’).

In his remarks on the pterylosis of “ Megapodius
rubripes,” Nitzsch stated that it was typically gallin-
aceous in character, and that the oil gland was tufted.
Garrod, however, found that in “ Megacephalon maleo ”’
the oil gland was nude, and that the rest of the feather
arrangement differed in some respects from the typical
galline character. Pycraft deals in an extended manner
with the pterylography of “ Megapodius pritchardi”’ and
of a nestling of “ Megapodius eremita.” In his paper
he raises a number of points of interest. Unfortunately,
this paper has only recently come into my hands, and
since the plumage of my 12 days’ old chick of “M.
eremita ” is worthy of detailed study in connection with
several points emphasised by Pycraft, I have decided to
withhold all remarks upon it till later.

In ‘“ Catheturus lathami” the head is almost bare,
the feathers of this region being scanty, reduced, and
bristle-like. In the supra-orbital region, however, and
anterior to this region, the feathers are slightly longer,
being about half an inch in length. The anterior part
of the neck is occupied by the large “ wattle,’ which is
sparsely covered by a number of bristle-like feathers,
which, on the posterior side, take more the character of
contour feathers.

“ Lipoa”’ differs greatly from “ Catheturus ” in this
region. The head is comparatively thickly covered with
well developed feathers, which are raised above into a
distinct crest. Anterior to the eyes, and extending back-
wards below and behind them to surround the auditory

178 ANATOMY OF CERTAIN MEGAPODES.

aperture, is a paired white space, bare except for a few
bristles (absent in ‘“‘ Catheturus ”), which surround this
aperture in a double row.

In the posterior neck region, in “ Catheturus,” the
lateral neck spaces are broad and well defined. The
ventral tract begins in this region, and as it passes back-
wards divides into two strongly-marked pectoral bands,
which diverge some distance in front of the sternum,
and are carried down on each side towards the thigh,
just anterior to which (about the mid length of the
sternum) they suddenly cease. The rest of the ventral
tract is wholly separated from the pectoral bands by
well-marked spaces. This other part commences just
anterior to the manubrium sterni, and immediately
divides, the two tracts running backwards and only
meeting just anterior to the anus, The two tracts diverge
ereatly in the abdominal region before meeting.

The arrangement in “Lipoa”’ is almost exactly
similar to the above, there being the two strong pectoral
tracts which are separated from the ventral tract proper,
the latter becoming divided into two tracts, which meet
in this case some distance anterior to the anus, forming
a diffused tract on the abdomen.

The dorsal tract in “ Catheturus ” is bounded later-
ally on the neck region by the two large neck spaces. It
is continued caudad as far as a point Lyi ing shortly behind
the shoulder joint, where it abruptly ends i in fairly long
and strong feathers. When the tract begins again, it
becomes diffused over the entire pelvic region’ as a
broad area, so wide as to be fused with the femoral
tracts on either side. The oil gland is nude.

In “ Lipoa,” the arrangement of the dorsal tract is
similar. There is a large space, as in “ Catheturus,” con-
necting the lateral spaces of the trunk. The oil gland
here again is nude.

The humeral and femoral tracts are well developed
in each of the two genera, the latter being fused with
the posterior expanded portion of the dorsal tract.

The distribution of the feathers on the wings agrees
in both of the specimens examined. The number of
remiges is;—Metacarpals, 10; cubitals, 15. In each the

_BY T. THOMSON FLYNN, B.Sc. 179

first cubital is equally well developed with the rest,
though not quite so long. The cubitals are graduated,
the eighth being the longest. Both genera are quin-
cubital, markedly differing in this respect from “ M.
pritchardi” and “ M. eremita.”

The dorsal major tectrices of the primaries are well
developed, but not so long as the cubitals, these latter
being graduated, the first (in “ Catheturus ”) being in
length 514 inches, the seventh (the longest) measuring
6% inches.

The dorsal tectrices mediae of-the secondaries are
fairly large, and are graduated, there being no we
differences in length between adjacent feathers. Those
of the primaries are feeble, and on the manus they are
almost deficient.

The dorsal tectrices minores do not call for special
mention.

On the ventral side the tectrices majores are well
developed, the tectrices mediae are absent, and the
minores are scattered and feeble.

The rectrices number 16 in each of the two genera.

Ip a number of specimens of “ Catheturus ” there is
present in the mid-ventral apterium a patch of specially
thickened skin. It is roughly rhomboidal in shape, with
its long axis (about two inches) extending along the
carina sterni posteriorly. Its short axis measures about
s4in., and the skin covering it, though specially
thickened, is not at all scaly.

REMARKS.

All the genera of the Megapodidae so far described
resemble the typical gallinae in a number of points in
their feather arrangement, but most especially in the
fact that the two parts of the ventral tract unite before
reaching the anus. They, however, agree with one an-
other, and differ from the typical gallinae in the posses-
sion of the interrupted ventral tract, the presence of the
large dorsal interscapular space and the fusion of the

180 ANATOMY OF CERTAIN MEGAPODES.

lumbar with the dorsal tract. It seems possible that the
Megapodidae are capable of being divided into two
groups. The first of these have the oil gland tufted, and
are aquincubital. This group would probably be found to
include all the species belonging to the genus * Mega-
podius,”’ but at any rate includes “ M. eremita”’ and
“M. pritchardi.” The second group would include those
_ genera with a nude oil gland and quincubital wing,
comprising the genera “ Catheturus,’ “ Lipoa,” and
probably ‘‘ Megacephalon,” although we have no evi-
dence yet, in the case of this genus, as to the wing being
diastataxial or otherwise.

BY T. THOMSON FLYNN, B.Sc. I8t

PART I1—MYOLOGY OF THE HIND LIMB.

Myologically, I have as yet examined only two
genera of the Megapodidae — “Catheturus” and
“ Lipoa.” ‘These two genera agree almost exactly in
the arrangement and distribution of the muscles, such
differences as are noticeable being in the main due tq
the disparity in the length of the hind limb. That ot
the Mallee Hen is much shorter than the Brush Turkey,
being only three-quarters the length. In both cases the
enormous strength of the leg muscles is very noticeable,
particularly as regards the muscles of the thigh. The
size of these muscles is much greater than in Gallus.
The great size of the posterior thigh muscles in these
birds results in the drawing out of the post-acetabular
portion of the sacral region. The acetabulum, therefore,
which lies about half-way between the two ends of the
pelvis in Gallus, comes to about one-third of the distance
from the anterior end. The enormous thickness of the
thigh muscles, anterior as well as posterior, results in
the deep hollowing out of the sides of the pelvis ex-
ternal to the ilio-ischiatic crest.

The thigh contains the usual muscles of the Galli-
naceous birds, the tensor fasciae, the semitendinosus
and accessory semitendinosus, the femoro-caudal and
its accessory, and the ambiens. Certain points, some
of which may be characteristic, are worthy of note in
connection with these muscles. The gluteal muscles
are well developed, and are four in number—primus
(tensor fasciae), medius, minimus, and quartus—the
latter being a short, chunky little muscle having its
origin at the posterior outer margin of the ilium for a
short distance, and passing backwards, slightly down-
wards and outwards, to be inserted into the outer side
of femur just below the trochanter and slightly below

and anterior to the insertion of the gluteus medius.

‘The semitendinosus and its accessory are surpris-
ingly well developed, the latter being nearly as long as
broad (one and a half by one and a quarter inches). The
arrangement of the femoro-caudal muscle is interesting
in these genera. According to Garrod (P.Z.S., 1873, pp.
626-644) in most birds “it.arises from the (anterior)

182 ANATOMY OF CERTAIN MEGAPODES.

transverse processes of the two last coccygeal vertebrae,
and is inserted into the linea aspera of the femur at
about one-third of its length from the trochanter.” In
my specimens I have found the insertion exactly as
stated by Garrod, but when the muscle is traced out
towards the tail the arrangement is found to differ re-
markably from that laid down by him. The muscle on
each side is found to spread out into a thin aponeurotic
sheet, the two uniting and covering the lower side of
the muscles of that region. The shape of this muscle,
remarkably enough, varies in the two genera. In the
Brush Turkey its ome and) i ibbon- like, while in
“Lipoa” it is much expanded and thin, so that its
sas part comes to be leaflike. This latter condition

“Lipoa” may, however, be due to the pressure of
poe Gee muscles in preservation. The accessory head,
however, agrees in both genera in being large and fan-
shaped, rising along a fairly extensive line posterior to
the ischiatic foramen, covering in this position the lower
half of the hollow, which lies external to the ilio-ischi-
atic crest. Centrally this muscle is thinned, consisting
only of an aponeurosis, through which can be seen the
tendon of M. obturator externus.

The arrangement of the semimembranosus is inte-
resting in these birds. In “ Gallus” this muscle rises
from the outer edge of the ischium, but its origin does
not extend so far back as to completely cover the ischio-
pubic foramen. In “ Catheturus” and “ Lipoa,” how-
ever, this foramen is completely covered, so that with
the lengthening of the origin the muscle comes to be
fan- shaped. In company with the semitendinosus, it
forms the posterior contour of the thigh.

M. ambiens has much the usual insertion, bending
round the knee over the patella, to become merged with
the head of M. perforatus digiti i1., but its origin is
wotthy of comment. It is not, as usual in birds, a thin,
spindle-shaped muscle; but owing to the fact that it
arises from both the pectineal process, and some small
portion of the bone behind it, it comes to be triangular.

The muscle representing the py sent called by
Gadow the ilio-femoralis externus, and by Owen and
Selenka, the glutaeus externus, is also present in the

BY T. THOMSON FLYNN, B.Sc. 183

Megapodes, as in “ Gallus,’ but is more poweriully
developed in the former. It is a well developed, trian-
gular muscle, rising fleshy along the posterior third of
the preacetabular crest and from the hollow. below this,
then passing directly over the head of the femur, rapidly
narrows to a pointed tendon, which is inserted into the
outer side of femur just below the trochanter above the
insertion of gluteus minimus.

The obturator muscles (internal and external) show
nothing of special interest except that the area of origin
of the latter is triangular.

In the shank muscles, a special feature is the strong
ossification in some of the tendons, so complete that
often they may easily be broken in two with a sharp
blow. In the presence of this ossification almost all the
shank muscles are alike, but it is more particularly con-
fined to the peroneous longus, the tibialis anticus and
the soleus.

M. extensor digitorum communis in the Megapodes
rises from the hollow between the pro and ecto-cneminal
crests of the tibia, partly also from the outer side of the
latter and from the upper third of the anterior face of
the bone. It passes, as usual, under the bony and liga-
mentous bridges at the proximal end of the tarso-
metatarsus. About two-thirds the distance down this
latter bone it bifurcates, forming an outer and inner slip.

(live latter passesstowme base or ‘thetsecond dict:
where it again divides into an outer slip (A) and an inner
(B). (A) is ribbon-like, and divides into two, one of
which forms the fibrous bridge of slip (B), the other the
fibrous bridge at the base of digit 111.

Slip (B) divides also into two, the outer of which
crosses over the inner to become inserted into the base
of the second phalanx. The other division of slip (B)
passes along the outer side of the second digit to be in-
serted into the base of the ungual phalanx. The rest of
the tendon of M. extensor digitorum communis is dis-
tributed in the usual manner, dividing at the base of each
phalanx into two, one of which is inserted into the base
of each phalanx, the other continued onwards to the
base of the next.

184 ANATOMY OF CERTAIN MEGAPODES.

The extensor brevis digitorum of Owen is present in
these birds underlying the last-named muscle. It runs
along the sulcus in front of the tarso-metatarsus, and is
attached to that bone for the main part of its extent.
Just underneath the point where the extensor communis
digitorum first bifurcates, the present muscle is con-
verted into a tendinous expansion, which is hardly ditf-
ferentiated into tendons, but of which separate parts are
inserted into the bases of the proximal phalanges of
digits ii., ili, and iv. From the side of the body of the
muscle, and about half-way down the tarso-metatarsus,
a small portion takes its origin, which passes to the
hallux, and is inserted into the base of the movable
metatarsus of that digit.

M. abductor digiti iv. is a small muscle rising exter-
nally to the origin of m. perforatus hallucis (vide infra)
at the proximal end of the tarsus. It passes down the
postero-internal aspect of the bone, being attached to it
for some considerable part of its extent. About two-
thirds down this bone it develops a tendon, which passes
externally to the joint between the foot and the meta-
tarsus, to be inserted into the outer side of the base of
the proximal phalanx of the fourth digit.

There is a strong vinculum joining the deep flexor of
the foot with the flexor longus hallucis, as found by
Garrod to be the case in the Gallinae in general. In
addition, there is another, not nearly so evident a vin-
clum, joining M. flexor perforatus digiti 111. to M. per-
foratus et perforans digiti iit.

This latter vinculum occurs just behind the joint
between the metatarsus and the pes. It merely joins
together the two tendons in that position.

M. perforatus hallucis is present, rising by two fleshy
heads, the larger from the hollow lying on the inner
side of the hypotarsus, the lesser from a similar but
smaller concavity on the outer side. In this position,
the tendon of the deep flexor overlies it, and passes
down in a grove between the partially distinct bellies of
the muscle. The lesser head develops a tendon much
in advance of the larger, the two running then side by
side until they fuse. The compound tendon is attached

BY T. THOMSON FLYNN, B.S8c- 185

to the base of the first phalanx of the hallux, but is per-
forated in this position by the tendon of M. flexor longus
hallucis.

The method by which the two muscles M. flexor
perforans digiti iv. and M. flexor perforatus digiti iv., are
made to act on five phalanges is interesting in these
birds. The arrangement in M. flexor perforans is simple.
It perforates the tendon of M. flexor perforatus, and
passes to the ungual phalanx, being inserted into it in
two places, at the base of the terminal phalanx, and
also a little in advance of this, just at the base of the
nail. It gives off also small slips to the penultimate
and ante-penultimate phalanges of this digit.

The perforated flexor, of course, becomes divided
into two parts—an inner and an outer. The inner of
these passes to be inserted into the base of the fourth
phalanx, giving off atso a slip to the third. The outer
slip divides almost immediately into two, of which one
becomes inserted into the base of the third phalanx,
while the other divides again into two, one part being
inserted into the base of the first phalanx, the other into.
the base of the second.

M. adductor digiti iv. About this muscle Gadow
(Bronn’s Thier-reichs, Aves, p. 204-5), says :—‘‘ Diesen
Muskel, der nicht in der Literatur erwahnt ist habe ich
nur bei sehr wenigen Vogeln gefunden: Bei Rhea
(nicht bei den ubrigen Ratiten gesehen) entspringt er
als ein sehr dunner Muskel fibular neben dem M. ab-
ductor dig. u. und ist theilweise mit dem ihn lateral
begrenzenden M. abductor dig. iv. verwachsen. Seine
Sehne geht durch das Spatium intertarsale externum zur
Tibialseite der Basis phal. i. und adducirt die Aussen-
zehe neben geringer Plantarflexion. Bei Bucorvus ent-
sprang er von distalen Ende der Tarsus: bei Rhampas-
tus war er noch kurzer und nutzlos.”

In the Megapodes, it arises from the upper part of
the anterior aspect of the tarso-metartarse, and from
part of that bone as well as from the side of the extensor
brevis digitorum. It is a thin spindle-shaped muscle,
which develops a thin rounded tendon passing down-

T86 ANATOMY OF CERTAIN MEGAPODES.

wards in a canal between the metatarsals of digit iii. and
iv. to be fixed on the inner side of the base of the
proximal phalanx of digit iv.

M. adductor digiti 11. is present as a small muscle
rising from an area of the distal end of the tarsus, and
underlying all the tendons of the deep flexors. It ends
in a tendon which is inserted into the infero-lateral
base of the proximal phalanx of the second digit.

eS ae

aia Rover TasM., T9090 2 —
. peat oP

SEnmetm

add. ma qe 7

semil

ace. semil.

alyal ONG MP Se

BY T. THOMSON FLYNN, B.Sc. 187

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

FIGURE . = Cathettinusmlabham ia dissection Lot
muscles of thigh.

The overlying gluteus primus has been removed ex- °
cept the distal portion (t.f.). The biceps and semi-
~tendinous have only their proximal and distal portions
left. All the gluteus medius has been removed except
its tendon.

ACeuscHie Eso at . . Accessory semiitendimosus
Acdlometee hry... es eeradducton Lometds
inci rire a. | accessony temOoro-candal
BiG Se POS Mt Se We oes MMe ol oicies ols olea.dope) cicbbais
AO a Sk Temes, wy chemoro-caudalll
REMMIBROU Pla ta Myles yok ARAM es). ote oe ecanur ee Uneady Ole femnthty
lle Soa, ea otha oo 8 c..c 4) URNS PRE IMDS WaatinronyBls
Ole nie Can eee cae) Ve sl 3) oe UEC UISy mle diiuls
cal Mae ate ten ce ME cosh eal CLUMGS US! Guleareutts
Die ee Noe Se eos) ye ey ata Gals
Seminar (eee oe. seinem branostus
Semmiba Mepet a e e ) SeT then CIiMOsus
ee oe as "Se oteera os TENS Ote fascia
VCMT GM os) calc AMM s,s) ate alee Cuan, WL GULLS CCUG TeMDUNS.

FIGURE 2.—\*‘ Catheturus lathami,”’ back view of the
tarso-metatarsus.

Me nee as 5... ee ere tia DO EASES
aD Gude iva) qo eee eee Pees aC CLOn aigdtt iv.
aed dios 1.4) Sse gen ee eee eee CUCtOnidionbint
fetleaddendign tvey rer don of m. adductor digiti iv.
dig. i. .. cavity left after removal of metatarsal of digit 1.
dig. ii., dig. 1ii., dig. iv.....proximal phalanges of

valieaTies| Alyy ielag sy aie

FIGURE 3.—“ Catheturus lathami,’ front view of the
tarso-metatarsus.

dGlcmciorpiva rs ee oe. eee add cto digiitih ty.
CELINA nar Pont cas al. SAMeNer, eects. 3: vis, Its Lendow

Pete |

Ls te!

REPORT

ROYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA

JNMOVR IWISUR) WAIN

109.

Gubart.

» Printed at “he Examiner” and “Weekly Courier ’’ Offices,
73-75 Patterson Street, Launces on,

IQr

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

The Annual General Meeting of the Royal Society was held
in the Society’s Room, Museum, on Thursday, 3rd March, 1910.

In the absence of the President (His Excellency Sir Harry
Barron) Mr. Thomas Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., the senior Vice-
President, occupied the chair, and the Annual Reports for 1909
were submitted.

RE-ELECTION OF RETIRING MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

There being no other nominations, the retiring members of
the Council (Messrs. R. M. Johnston, Russell Young, Dr.
Noetling, and Dr. Webster were re-elected.

ELECTION OF FELLOWS.

Messrs. Robert C. Kermode and H. Minchin Nicholls were
elected Fellows of the Society.

AUDITOR.

Mr. H. W. W. Echlin was reappointed Auditor.

REPORTS OF SKCTIONS.

The Medical Section reported, through their Secretary (Dr.
E. W. J. Ireland) that the Section had a membership of twenty-
one during the year, three of the members being resident in the
country. Two had resigned at the end of the year on their de-
parture from Hobart. Two new members were elected. The
Annual Meeting and six Ordinary Meetings were held, and were
well attended. Several meetings were devoted to the discussion
of the Midwifery Act, and some suggested amendments were
submitted to the Hon. the Chief Secretary for consideration.
The Section thanks the Royal Society for the annual grant of
£12, which has been devoted to the purchase of books. Their
accounts of receipts and expenditure showed a credit balance of
£14 17s.

ANNUAL REPORT FOR I909Q.

The Council of the Royal Society have the honour to present
their Report for 1909 to the Annual General Meeting of the
Society.

His Excellency Sir Harry Barron, K.C.M.G., shortly after
his arrival to assume the office of Governor of the State, was

192

pleased to intimate his acceptance of the position of President
of the Society.

Seven Monthly General Meetings and one Special General
Meeting were held during the year. Eleven Ordinary Meetings
and four Special Meetings of the Council were held during the
same period.

Twenty-nine Fellows were elected, one Associate became a
Fellow, and thirteen Fellows and one Associate allowed their
membership to lapse, and the deaths of three Fellows were re-
corded. The total number of Members of the Society were one
hundred and thirty-nine Fellows, including nine Life Members
and two Associates. Sir Ernest Shackleton was elected an
Honorary Member.

Two vacancies occurred in the Council through the resigna-
tion of Sir Elliott Lewis and Dr. Elkington, and were respec-
tively filled by the election of Dr. G. A. Webster and Dr. Arthur
Clarke.

At a Special General Meeting on August 9, 1909. Rule 44
was altered by striking out the last paragraph, which reierred
to an Address by the President at the first Monthly Generali
Meeting in each year.

The Committee appointed to arrange the Library Fund
found it necessary to sort out the Society's own publications
before attempting the work in the Library Room, because it
was discovered that the set of the Society's own publications in
the Library was incomplete.

iseless printed matter, and stock had apparently not been taken
for years.

After a considerable amount of work the Committee suc-
ceeded in bringing together a complete sez of the Society's
publications from 1845 up to date; the volumes were bound in
their original covers, and the set now in the Library is prob-
ably the only complete set of the Publications of the Royal
Society of Tasmania. Copies of the missing Annual Reports
were also found, and two complete sets from 1845 to 1892 were
bound.

The aggregate number of the back volumes is 2,750 in all,

which, valued at Is. per volume, represent am asset of £137 IQs.
The following Papers were read during the Session of 1909:—
Records of Tasmanian Botanists, by J. H. Maiden, F.L,.S.
(Corresponding Member).
A. Peculiar Group of Tronattas, by Fritz Noetling, M.A..
Whi 1B).

Red Ochre and its Use by the Aborigines of Tasmania, by

Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

193

The Minerals of Tasmania, by W. F. Petterd, C.M.Z.S.
The Tasmanian Onagraceae, by lL. Rodway.

The Speech of the Tasmanian Aborigines, by Hermann B.
Ritz, M.A.

Notes on the Occurrence of a Fossil Tree embedded in
Drift on the North-West Coast of Tasmania, by T. Stephens,
M.A. F-G.S.

Rocks Used in the Manufacture of Tronattas, by Fritz
Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

On the Applications of Multenions to Metageometry, by
Prof. Alex. M°Aulay, M.A.

Notes on the Names given to Minerals and Rocks by the
Aborigines of Tasmania, by Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

A Contribution to the Geology of Tasmania, by L. Keith
\WiandeeBb AU. Bak.

Note on Brachyecome melanocarpa, Sonder, by L. Rodway.

Notes on the Glacial Beds at Freestone Bluff, Sandy Cove,
near Wynyard, by Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D.

Geological Notes on the Country traversed by the Derwent
Valley Railway Extension, by IT. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S.

Points in the Anatomy of Certain Megapodeés, by T. Thom-
son Flynn, B.Se.

A Balance-sheet, duly audited, showing the receipts and ex-
penditure for 1969, is appended.

The Report was acopted without amendment.

194

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LIST OF FELLOWS AND ASSOCIATES

Vs DNs,

ROYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANIA.

*Fellows who have contributed Papers read before the Society.
{Life Members.
The Addresses of Members residing in Hobart are omitted.

PRewOW Ss”:
ENOMMOW leew eem Vitec
Allwork, F., L. S. A., New Norfolk.
Archer, Wm. Henry Davies, Longford.
Anderson, G. M., M.B., C.M., Franklin.
Armstrons, Elugh, FR C:S:
Ash, Percy.

| Baker, Henry D.
Barclay, David.
(Barnes ev.) rie MEAs IS. RiGs Sse ais
“Beattie, |. W.
Bennett, Wm. Henry, fross.
Bennison, Thomas.
Bidencope, Joseph.
Blackman, A. E.
Brain, Rev. Alfred, M.A.
Brownell, F. Leshe
Burgess, Hon. Wm. Henry.
Butler, Arthur, Lower Sandy Bay.
Butler, Francis.
Butler, Hon. Gamaliel Henry, M.R.C.S., M.L.C.
Burbury, Fredk. E., Launceston
Burn, William.
Bitlen WwW. che Die ies c:

Campbell, K. D., M.B.
> Clarkes Arthur be, Mek. GeS:
Clerk, Claud.

197

Counsel, Edward Albert.

Crosby, Hon. William, M.L.C.

Cross) AR pee Capua ke AP

Crouch ene sia alain 9s:

Cruickshank, James H., Lt.-Col. R.E., Glenorchy.

Davies, Hon. John George, M.H.A.
Davies, Hon. Charles Ellis, M.L.C.
Dechaineaux, Lucien.
Delany, His Grace Archbishop
*Dobson, Hon. Henry.
Donovan Matthewele. RoC. 2 aia @.S

“Eilkineton, John S. C., M.D.
Ernst-Carroll, F. J., M.Sc., Neuchatel, Switzerland.
vans, le. AN
Evans, Thomas May.

Ewing, Hon. Norman K.

Fereday, Mrs. R. W.
| Foster, Henry, Major.
i oster., [ols ID),
Isiiuallanys WW, vA
Elvan. i hontson, Basc.

KGiegiatt, Co WV
Giblin, Lyndhurst F., B.A.
Giblin, Wilfred, M.B.
Giblin, Alan V.
Gould, Robert, Longford.
“Green, A. O.
Gouldiehie die

Harrison, E. J., Bellerive.

Harrison, Malcolm.

ilarveys Walter Aw WIR CS) MiB.
nleyver, Ivey nlp Vicar

Hoge, G. H., M.D., Launceston.
Horne, William.

Hubbard, Leonard.

Hutchison, Hermann.

Trelamdai. W. J., Mab IC. Me

*Tohnson, J. A., M.A.
*Johnstomy robert M.)FoL.S: St@y

Kerr, George.
*Kingsmill, Henry C., M.A,
Knight, H. W,

195

Wakes Wer pencerm nse:
Law, Ernest M., Launceston.
“Legge, Vincent W., Col., R.A., Cullenswood.
Lewis, Major R. C.
Lewis; HontSsm Neil Blhot, DiC) MEATS @ahiEGe
lemme ID5 slo 1jg5 LIE
Lodder, Miss M., Launceston.
Lowe, |OsSeplay IM. Iss. i

Mason, M.
| Mitchell, J. G., Jericho.
*May, W. L., Sandford.
Miller, Lindsay S., M.B., Ch.B.
Millen, J. D.
*Moore, George Brettingham, C.E.
+M‘Clymont, J. R., M.A., Queenborough.
*McAulay, Professor Alexander, M.A.
ME noy, Jia:

Macfarlane, Hon. james.
Maceowan, i. iS sMeBr, 5.S.
‘Macleod? Es |Eamsyvate
Mercer, E. ]., Dr. (Bishop of Tasmania).

Nicholas, George C., Ouse.
SINi@gilhnares, Pienza, Wilwate, ledal,|L)s
Norman, Keith, LL.B.
Nicholls, Mr. Justice.

Oldham, N.

leaner, INilayore va, (Ce

Parsons, Miss S: R:.

Pearce: Exist. a] ke.

Pedder, Alfred.
NI PMONS lee Igy bosiea, |B IUje15)

Ibrarttay Nee Vien @Ouicene ye

Propsting, Hon. Wm. Bispham.
*“Petterd, W. F., C.M.Z.S., Launceston.

Reid, A. R.
vIReie7z, Ile 1s}oq) WLeNe
Robetts, je Mas.
Roberts, Henry Llewellyn.
“Rodway, Leonard

|Sprott, Gregory, M.D.
|Sticht, Robert, Queenstown.
Scott, H. H., Launceston.
Scott, Robert G., M.B., C.M,
Shaw, Bernard, I.S.O,

199

‘Shoobridge, Rev. Canon George.
Shoobridge, W. E, Glenova.
Sicbs) Euuchi ree
Simmons, Matthew W.
«Simson, Augustus, Launceston.
*Stephens, Thomas, M.A., F.G.S.
Seal, Leonard P.

Tarleton, John W.

“Wanyyl@res dave ||:
*Twelvetrees, W. H., F.G.S., Lawnceston.
**Thompson, Rev. Edward H.

Walch Charles.

=OWWearcal, lly ISGintloby |Bia/eNen de), labe
Watson, Horace.
Watchorn, Arthur Denison
Watchorn, E. T., Lieut.-Col.
Webster, Alexander George.
Webster, C. Ernest.
Webster, George A., M.B., M.R.C.S.
Weindorfer, G.
Wertheimer, Arnold

* Weymouth, W. A.
Winter, Alfred.
Wise, Isl jc
Wolfhagen, J. Edgar, M.B., C.M.
Wolfhagen, Waldemar.

Young, Russell.
Young, Russell, Junior.

ASSOCIATES:
Conlon, A.
Osborne, John, Junior.

Note—Fellows are requested to notify any errors in their
‘names, titles, or addresses.

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